Showing papers on "Task analysis published in 2011"

Task Partitioning: An Innovation Process Variable

Abstract: Innovation projects are “partitioned” into smaller tasks. Precisely where the boundaries between such tasks are placed can affect project outcome and the efficiency of task performance due to associated changes in the problem-solving inter-dependence among tasks. I propose that problem-solving inter-dependence among tasks can be predicted in many projects and can then be managed by strategies involving (1) adjustment of the task specifications and/or (2) reduction of the barriers to problem-solving interaction across selected or all task boundaries. The potential value of studying and managing task partitioning is illustrated by exploring how problematic areas of the innovation process, such as the design-build and marketing-R&D interfaces, can be better understood through that lens.

Aspects of working memory in L2 learning

Abstract: This article reviews research on working memory (WM) and its use in second language (L2) acquisition research. Recent developments in the model and issues surrounding the operationalization of the construct itself are presented, followed by a discussion of various methods of measuring WM. These methods include word and digit span tasks, reading, listening and speaking span tasks. We next outline the role proposed for WM in explaining individual differences in L2 learning processes and outcomes, including sentence processing, reading, speaking, lexical development and general proficiency. Key findings are that WM is not a unitary construct and that its role varies depending on the age of the L2 learners, the task and the linguistic domain. Some tests of WM may in fact be tests of differences in ability to attend to aspects of the L2. Future research will focus on matching tests of WM more closely with linguistic tasks and using more standardized, replicable measures of WM in new areas including writing in non-alphabetic scripts, instructional interventions and cognitive neuropsychology.

The nature of gestures' beneficial role in spatial problem solving.

Abstract: Co-thought gestures are hand movements produced in silent, noncommunicative, problem-solving situations. In the study, we investigated whether and how such gestures enhance performance in spatial visualization tasks such as a mental rotation task and a paper folding task. We found that participants gestured more often when they had difficulties solving mental rotation problems (Experiment 1). The gesture-encouraged group solved more mental rotation problems correctly than did the gesture-allowed and gesture-prohibited groups (Experiment 2). Gestures produced by the gesture-encouraged group enhanced performance in the very trials in which they were produced (Experiments 2 & 3). Furthermore, gesture frequency decreased as the participants in the gesture-encouraged group solved more problems (Experiments 2 & 3). In addition, the advantage of the gesture-encouraged group persisted into subsequent spatial visualization problems in which gesturing was prohibited: another mental rotation block (Experiment 2) and a newly introduced paper folding task (Experiment 3). The results indicate that when people have difficulty in solving spatial visualization problems, they spontaneously produce gestures to help them, and gestures can indeed improve performance. As they solve more problems, the spatial computation supported by gestures becomes internalized, and the gesture frequency decreases. The benefit of gestures persists even in subsequent spatial visualization problems in which gesture is prohibited. Moreover, the beneficial effect of gesturing can be generalized to a different spatial visualization task when two tasks require similar spatial transformation processes. We concluded that gestures enhance performance on spatial visualization tasks by improving the internal computation of spatial transformations.

The effects of simultaneous use of careful online planning and task repetition on accuracy, complexity, and fluency in EFL learners’ oral production

Abstract: This article reports on a study that was primarily aimed at investigating the effects of simultaneous use of careful online planning and task repetition on accuracy, complexity, and fluency in the ...

Second language task complexity : researching the cognition hypothesis of language learning and performance

Abstract: 1. List of contributors 2. Acknowledgements 3. Series editors' preface to Volume 2 4. Part 1. Cognition, task complexity, language learning, and performance: Theoretical and methodological issues 5. Chapter 1. Second language task complexity, the Cognition Hypothesis, language learning, and performance (by Robinson, Peter) 6. Chapter 2. Speech production and the Cognition Hypothesis (by Kormos, Judit) 7. Chapter 3. Corpus-driven methods for assessing accuracy in learner production (by Wulff, Stefanie) 8. Part 2. Researching the effects of task complexity across task types and modes of L2 performance 9. Chapter 4. Task complexity and linguistic performance in L2 writing and speaking: The effect of mode (by Kuiken, Folkert) 10. Chapter 5. Manipulating task complexity across task types and modes (by Gilabert, Roger) 11. Part 3. Researching the effects of task complexity on L2 interaction, modified output, and uptake 12. Chapter 6. Effects of task complexity and interaction on L2 performance (by Michel, Marije C.) 13. Chapter 7. Task complexity, modified output, and L2 development in learner-learner interaction (by Nuevo, Ana-Maria) 14. Chapter 8. Task complexity, uptake of recasts, and L2 development (by Revesz, Andrea) 15. Part 4. Researching the influence of learner characteristics and perceptions on simple and complex L2 task performance 16. Chapter 9. When individual differences come into play: The effect of learner creativity on simple and complex task performance (by Albert, Agnes) 17. Chapter 10. Working memory capacity and narrative task performance (by Kormos, Judit) 18. Chapter 11. Task complexity, language anxiety, and the development of the simple past (by Kim, You Jin) 19. Chapter 12. Examining the influence of intentional reasoning demands on learner perceptions of task difficulty and L2 monologic speech (by Ishikawa, Tomohito) 20. Author index 21. Subject index

Task‐Based Language Learning: A Review of Issues

Abstract: Theoretically motivated, empirical research into task-based language learning has been prompted by proposals for task-based language teaching. In this review I describe early and more recent proposals for how task-based learning can stimulate acquisition processes and the theoretical rationales that have guided research into them. I also describe taxonomies of task characteristics that have been proposed and claims made about the effects of task characteristics on interaction, attention to input, and speech production. I then relate the issues raised to findings described in the five empirical studies in this issue concerning the effects of pedagogic task design on the accuracy, fluency, and complexity of learner language; the influence of individual differences in cognitive and motivational variables on task performance; the extent to which tasks, and teacher interventions, promote the quantity and quality of interaction that facilitate L2 learning; and the generalizability of task-based learning research in laboratory contexts to instructed classroom settings.

Focus on function: a cluster, randomized controlled trial comparing child- versus context-focused intervention for young children with cerebral palsy.

Abstract: In many countries, children with cerebral palsy (CP) receive physical and occupational therapy services to facilitate development and to enhance performance in functional movement, self-care, play, school activities, and leisure. In the past, therapy interventions for children with CP have primarily focused on changing factors within the child at the domain of body function and structure, with the assumption that these changes will improve their abilities in the domains of activity and participation. Therapy approaches are increasing their focus on changing a child's abilities to complete activities. Emerging conceptual frameworks such as a dynamic systems approach to motor development and family-centered services have facilitated the development of alternative treatment approaches that focus on the child and family within their environment.1–7 Dynamic systems theory suggests that the most efficient motor behavior results from the spontaneous self-organization and interaction of many subsystems to achieve a functional goal.3,8 The transactional relationships among the child, the task, and the environment result in efficient solutions for functional motor goals and tasks. Different environments may result in different solutions, and in the same environment, different children may demonstrate different solutions. The concept of self-organization suggests that `pattern and order can emerge from the process of the interaction of the components of a complex subsystem without the need for explicit instructions' (Thelen,9 p79). This perspective of movement makes it more challenging to predict `cause and effect' movement solutions because of the influence of many factors. Dynamic systems theory challenges traditional treatment perspectives, suggesting that typical patterns of movement are not always the optimal solution to a motor goal. Emerging treatment models influenced by dynamic systems theory consider task or activity completion as the goal, with less emphasis on remediation or `normalization' of movement components. Different terms have been used to describe the focus on functional performance: ecological task analysis,10,11 functional therapy,5 goal-directed functional therapy,12 activity focused and goal directed,13,14 activity focused,15 and task-oriented.7 Two before–after studies of young children with CP found significant improvements in function using an activity-focused or functional therapy approach.12,14 In a randomized trial, children receiving task-oriented strength training and practice of functional tasks improved significantly more in gross motor activities than those receiving therapy emphasizing facilitation and normalization of movement patterns.7 Ketelaar et al.5 conducted a randomized trial in which therapists focused on changing the motor skills the child needed to perform a task within their natural environment, based on child- or parent-identified goals. This functional therapy approach was more effective in achieving self-care and motor outcomes than therapy focused on quality of movement. The development and implementation of treatment approaches using a family-centered approach has emphasized that treatment should focus on child and family-identified goals. Wiart et al.16 reported that parents valued involvement in setting therapy goals but often found that subsequent intervention focused less on those functional goals and more on movement quality. Parents believe that setting functional goals facilitates practice of skills and activities in the home.17 Two recent studies found that goal setting leads to significant improvements in achievement of functional movement and activities.14,18 In a recent study, Lowing et al.13 found significant improvements in self-care, mobility, and motor capacity after goal-directed, activity-focused therapy compared with activity-focused therapy where the aims of therapy were more general. An emerging treatment method based on dynamic systems theory and family-centered service focuses on improving a child's motor-based functional activities primarily by changing identified constraints in the task or environment.6 This context-focused approach contrasts with interventions that have focused on facilitating changes within the child's movement abilities or skills. The goal is to change the task or environment to promote functional performance, to allow the use of a child's own movement strategies, and to encourage practice of tasks within the natural environment.6 Pilot studies of the context-focused approach indicated that it was feasible and has potential to facilitate change in motor performance in young children with CP.6,19 What this paper adds This study is the first randomized trial for young children with CP to examine the effects of therapy focused on changing only task or environment, and not the child. Children who received the context-focused therapy made similar improvements to those receiving child-focused therapy. Frequency of therapy may be critical to the success of any intervention. In summary, emerging ideas from dynamic systems theory and family-centered service have stimulated debate about the potential use of a context-focused approach for young children with CP, but evaluation of related intervention protocols is extremely limited. The objective of this multi-site, randomized clinical trial was to evaluate the efficacy of a context-focused approach compared with a child-focused approach in improving performance of functional tasks and mobility, and increasing participation in everyday activities in young children who have CP.

A free, easy-to-use, computer-based simple and four-choice reaction time programme: The Deary-Liewald reaction time task

Abstract: Reaction time tasks are used widely in basic and applied psychology. There is a need for an easy-to-use, freely available programme that can run simple and choice reaction time tasks with no special software. We report the development of, and make available, the Deary-Liewald reaction time task. It is initially tested here on 150 participants, aged from 18 to 80, alongside another widely used reaction time device and tests of fluid and crystallised intelligence and processing speed. The new task’s parameters perform as expected with respect to age and intelligence differences. The new task’s parameters are reliable, and have very high correlations with the existing task. We also provide instructions for downloading and using the new reaction time programme, and we encourage other researchers to use it.

Task Complexity, Focus on L2 Constructions, and Individual Differences: A Classroom-Based Study.

Abstract: Motivated by cognitive-interactionist frameworks for task-based learning, this study explores whether task complexity affects the extent to which learners focus on form–meaning connections during task-based work in a classroom setting, and whether this relationship is modulated by 3 individual difference factors—linguistic self-confidence, anxiety, and self-perceived communicative competence. Forty-three English as a second language learners from 6 intact classes worked in self-selected groups during their normal English classes. Each group performed 2 versions of the same argumentative task—a simple version and a complex version. The topics of the discussions were comparable, and the sequence of the tasks was counterbalanced. Twenty-three hours of audio- and videotaped data were collected and coded in terms of global and specific measures of speech production and various interactional features hypothesized to facilitate attention to second language constructions. Self-report questionnaires were employed to determine the mediating effects of the individual difference variables. Quantitative analyses revealed a few significant trends. One such trend is that participants demonstrated lower syntactic complexity but greater accuracy and lexical diversity when task complexity was increased. In addition, the more complex task proved more effective in inducing the use of specific, developmentally advanced constructions and in promoting interaction-driven language learning opportunities. However, no significant effects were observed for individual differences.

A framework for characterizing eHealth literacy demands and barriers.

Abstract: Background: Consumer eHealth interventions are of a growing importance in the individual management of health and health behaviors. However, a range of access, resources, and skills barriers prevent health care consumers from fully engaging in and benefiting from the spectrum of eHealth interventions. Consumers may engage in a range of eHealth tasks, such as participating in health discussion forums and entering information into a personal health record. eHealth literacy names a set of skills and knowledge that are essential for productive interactions with technology-based health tools, such as proficiency in information retrieval strategies, and communicating health concepts effectively. Objective: We propose a theoretical and methodological framework for characterizing complexity of eHealth tasks, which can be used to diagnose and describe literacy barriers and inform the development of solution strategies. Methods: We adapted and integrated two existing theoretical models relevant to the analysis of eHealth literacy into a single framework to systematically categorize and describe task demands and user performance on tasks needed by health care consumers in the information age. The method derived from the framework is applied to (1) code task demands using a cognitive task analysis, and (2) code user performance on tasks. The framework and method are applied to the analysis of a Web-based consumer eHealth task with information-seeking and decision-making demands. We present the results from the in-depth analysis of the task performance of a single user as well as of 20 users on the same task to illustrate both the detailed analysis and the aggregate measures obtained and potential analyses that can be performed using this method. Results: The analysis shows that the framework can be used to classify task demands as well as the barriers encountered in user performance of the tasks. Our approach can be used to (1) characterize the challenges confronted by participants in performing the tasks, (2) determine the extent to which application of the framework to the cognitive task analysis can predict and explain the problems encountered by participants, and (3) inform revisions to the framework to increase accuracy of predictions. Conclusions: The results of this illustrative application suggest that the framework is useful for characterizing task complexity and for diagnosing and explaining barriers encountered in task completion. The framework and analytic approach can be a potentially powerful generative research platform to inform development of rigorous eHealth examination and design instruments, such as to assess eHealth competence, to design and evaluate consumer eHealth tools, and to develop an eHealth curriculum. [J Med Internet Res 2011;13(4):e94]

Verbal interaction in Second Life: towards a pedagogic framework for task design

Abstract: Within a European project on Networked Interaction in Foreign Language Acquisition and Research (NIFLAR), Second Life was used as a 3D virtual world in which language students can communicate synchronously with native speakers in the target language, while undertaking action together. For this context, a set of design principles for interaction tasks was developed aiming at maximizing authentic social interaction and intercultural awareness, while exploiting the specific affordances of the virtual environment being used. These design principles were applied and tested in a case study in which two foreign language learners of Spanish and two pre-service teachers carried out four interaction tasks in the virtual world of Second Life. In this article we first present and discuss the framework for task development and assessment. We then show the results of the case study conducted in Second Life which aimed at: (1) applying and assessing the design principles for task elaboration, (2) analyzing the kind of i...

A Systematic Approach to Model Checking Human–Automation Interaction Using Task Analytic Models

Abstract: Formal methods are typically used in the analysis of complex system components that can be described as “automated” (digital circuits, devices, protocols, and software). Human-automation interaction has been linked to system failure, where problems stem from human operators interacting with an automated system via its controls and information displays. As part of the process of designing and analyzing human-automation interaction, human factors engineers use task analytic models to capture the descriptive and normative human operator behavior. In order to support the integration of task analyses into the formal verification of larger system models, we have developed the enhanced operator function model (EOFM) as an Extensible Markup Language-based, platform- and analysis-independent language for describing task analytic models. We present the formal syntax and semantics of the EOFM and an automated process for translating an instantiated EOFM into the model checking language Symbolic Analysis Laboratory. We present an evaluation of the scalability of the translation algorithm. We then present an automobile cruise control example to illustrate how an instantiated EOFM can be integrated into a larger system model that includes environmental features and the human operator's mission. The system model is verified using model checking in order to analyze a potentially hazardous situation related to the human-automation interaction.

Work or Fun? How Task Construal and Completion Influence Regulatory Behavior

Abstract: Volitional behaviors can be construed as “work” (extrinsically motivated) or as “fun” (intrinsically motivated). When volitional behaviors are construed as an obligation to work, completing the behavior depletes a consumer, and subsequent self-control becomes more difficult. When volitional behaviors are construed as an opportunity to have fun, completing the behavior vitalizes a consumer, and subsequent self-control becomes easier. Six studies show how individual differences and contextual factors influence the construal of a task, the motivation for completing it, and subsequent regulatory behavior.

Constraints-induced emergence of functional novelty in complex neurobiological systems: a basis for creativity in sport.

Abstract: In this paper we present a model of creativity captured as exploration and production of novel and functionally efficient behaviors, based on the statistical mechanics of disordered systems. In support of the modelling, we highlight examples of creative behaviors from our research in sports like boxing and rugby union. Our experimental results show how manipulation of practice task constraints changes the exploratory breadth of the hierarchically soft-assembled action landscape. Because of action metastability and differing task constraints, the specificity of each assembled movement configuration is unique. Empirically, a movement pattern's degree of novelty may be assessed by the value of the order parameter describing action. We show that creative and adaptive movement behavior may be induced by at least two types of interven-tions, based on relaxing task constraints which we term direct and indirect. Direct relaxing is typically a function of changing task constraints so that the number of affordances that can satisfy goal constraints increases. Indirect relaxing of constraints occurs when a habitual action is suppressed by, for example, stringent instructional constraints during sports training. That suppression simultaneously relaxes other correlated constraints that enable larger exploratory capacity and new affordances to emerge for the athlete or team

Implicit and explicit mechanisms of word learning in a narrative context: An event-related potential study

Abstract: The vast majority of word meanings are learned simply by extracting them from context rather than by rote memorization or explicit instruction. Although this skill is remarkable, little is known about the brain mechanisms involved. In the present study, ERPs were recorded as participants read stories in which pseudowords were presented multiple times, embedded in consistent, meaningful contexts (referred to as meaning condition, M+) or inconsistent, meaningless contexts (M-). Word learning was then assessed implicitly using a lexical decision task and explicitly through recall and recognition tasks. Overall, during story reading, M-words elicited a larger N400 than M+ words, suggesting that participants were better able to semantically integrate M+ words than M-words throughout the story. In addition, M+ words whose meanings were subsequently correctly recognized and recalled elicited a more positive ERP in a later time window compared with M+ words whose meanings were incorrectly remembered, consistent with the idea that the late positive component is an index of encoding processes. In the lexical decision task, no behavioral or electrophysiological evidence for implicit priming was found for M+ words. In contrast, during the explicit recognition task, M+ words showed a robust N400 effect. The N400 effect was dependent upon recognition performance, such that only correctly recognized M+ words elicited an N400. This pattern of results provides evidence that the explicit representations of word meanings can develop rapidly, whereas implicit representations may require more extensive exposure or more time to emerge.

Speed of processing, anticipation, inhibition and working memory in bilinguals

Abstract: Literature on the so-called bilingual advantage is directed towards the investigation of whether the mastering of two languages fosters cognitive skills in the non-verbal domain. The present study aimed to evaluate whether the bilingual advantage in non-verbal skills could be best defined as domain-general or domain-specific, and, in the latter case, at identifying the basic cognitive skills involved. Bilingual and monolingual participants were divided into two different age groups (children, youths) and were tested on a battery of elementary cognitive tasks which included a choice reaction time task, a go/no-go task, two working memory tasks (numbers and symbols) and an anticipation task. Bilingual and monolingual children did not differ from each other except for the anticipation task, where bilinguals were found to be faster and more accurate than monolinguals. These findings suggest that anticipation, which has received little attention to date, is an important cognitive domain which needs to be evaluated to a greater extent both in bilingual and monolingual participants.

Comparing Learners' State Anxiety during Task-Based Interaction in Computer-Mediated and Face-to-Face Communication

Abstract: The construct of anxiety is often believed to be the affective factor with the greatest potential to pervasively affect the learning process (Horwitz, 2001), and recent research has demonstrated that anxiety can mediate whether learners are able to notice feedback and subsequently produce output (Sheen, 2008). In order to reduce the negative effects of anxiety, researchers have suggested that computer-based interaction may be an ideal medium for communication and practice (Kern, 1995), although this hypothesis has yet to be tested empirically. The current study addresses this gap by comparing the effect of computer-mediated communication (CMC) vs. face-to-face communication (FTF) on learners’ state anxiety. Twenty-five learners of intermediate Spanish completed two information-gap tasks with their teacher in a within-subject, counterbalanced design. Learners’ state anxiety was measured halfway through and following each task via a state anxiety questionnaire, and a task preference questionnaire was administered after the treatment. Results demonstrate that — contrary to expectations — reported state anxiety was not significantly lower in the CMC mode than the FTF mode. In fact, learners’ reported state anxiety was comparable across modality. The use and implications of both interactional modes for foreign language learning contexts are discussed, as are students’ perceptions of interaction in the CMC and FTF modes.

Measurement and evidence of computer-based task switching and multitasking by 'Net Generation' students

Abstract: Logs of on-campus computer and Internet usage were used to conduct a study of computer-based task switching and multitasking by undergraduate medical students. A detailed analysis of over 6000 individual sessions revealed that while a majority of students engaged in both task switching and multitasking behaviours, they did so less frequently than 'Net Generation' rhetoric implies. The incidence and intensity of task switching and multitasking among students ranged from low to very high but infrequent and low-level multitaskers easily outnumbered inveterate multitaskers. Male and international students were significantly more likely to task switch and multitask than their female and local counterparts. Students who entered University directly from secondary school were significantly more likely to multitask than graduate students, as were first year compared to second year students, suggesting that post-secondary experiences may temper students' propensity or inclination to multitask.

Singing One's Way to Self-Regulation: The Role of Early Music and Movement Curricula and Private Speech

Abstract: Research Findings: Although the role of language and private speech in the development of behavioral self-regulation has been studied, relations between behavioral self-regulation and children's experiences with other symbolic systems, such as music, have not yet been explored. Eighty-nine 3- and 4-year-old children (42 of whom had been enrolled in Kindermusik music and movement classes, and 47 demographically similar children who had not experienced structured early childhood music classes) completed a battery of laboratory self-regulation tasks and a selective attention task during which their private speech was reliably transcribed and categorized. Children currently enrolled in Kindermusik classes showed better self-regulation than those who were not currently enrolled (d = .41), and they also used more relevant private speech during the selective attention task (d = .57), a verbal strategy that was positively related to performance. Children exposed to the music program were also more likely to engag...

Structuring and composition mechanisms to address scalability issues in task models

Abstract: Along tasks analysis and modeling history it has been demonstrated by experience that task modeling activities become cumbersome when performed on large, real-life systems. However, one of the main goals of task models is to provide designers with a structured and complete description of the users tasks especially when these user tasks are numerous and/or complex. Several authors proposed to handle that problem by providing tools aiming at supporting both construction and understanding (usually via simulation) of models. One of the most popular examples is CTTE environment which is dedicated to the engineering of CTT task models. The paper shows how to extend notations for task description with two kinds of mechanisms: composition and refinement/abstraction. Refinement/abstraction mechanisms make it possible to decompose a task model into several models and to interconnect them. Composition mechanisms make it possible to define communication means between task models. The paper proposes a precise definition of these mechanisms, their integration into a notation for describing task models and demonstrates that altogether, these two structuring mechanisms support the effective exploitation of task models for large scale application. The use of the mechanisms is presented on a real-life case study from the space domain describing operators' tasks to monitor a satellite and manage failures.

Task Effects on Focus on Form in Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication

Abstract: Previous research on synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) has shown that SCMC interaction could draw learners' attention to form in ways that are similar to face-to-face interaction. However, the role of task type in focusing learners' attention on form has not been widely researched. In a repeated-measures design, this study investigated if task type had any effect on the number and characteristics of focus-on-form instances of 54 English-as-a-foreign-language learners. Two jigsaw-dictogloss task pairs were designed and matched for content. Following a practice task session, randomly formed dyads performed each of the tasks using MSN Messenger and CoWord software. Language-related episodes (LREs) were identified and categorized according to their focus, outcome, and type. Results showed that the dictogloss task elicited a higher number of LREs than the jigsaw task. Tasks also displayed some differences with respect to the characteristics of LREs. Whereas the dictogloss was characterized by orthographic, solved correctly, and negative feedback LREs, the jigsaw was characterized by unresolved LREs. The results are discussed in light of the arguments about the effects of limited information-processing capacity on task performance (). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Characterizing the intelligence analysis process: Informing visual analytics design through a longitudinal field study

Abstract: While intelligence analysis has been a primary target domain for visual analytics system development, relatively little user and task analysis has been conducted within this area. Our research community's understanding of the work processes and practices of intelligence analysts is not deep enough to adequately address their needs. Without a better understanding of the analysts and their problems, we cannot build visual analytics systems that integrate well with their work processes and truly provide benefit to them. In order to close this knowledge gap, we conducted a longitudinal, observational field study of intelligence analysts in training within the intelligence program at Mercyhurst College. We observed three teams of analysts, each working on an intelligence problem for a ten-week period. Based upon study findings, we describe and characterize processes and methods of intelligence analysis that we observed, make clarifications regarding the processes and practices, and suggest design implications for visual analytics systems for intelligence analysis.

Feedback and the rationing of time and effort among competing tasks.

Abstract: The study described here tested a model of how characteristics of the feedback environment influence the allocation of resources (time and effort) among competing tasks. Results demonstrated that performers invest more resources on tasks for which higher quality (more timely and more specific) feedback is available; this effect was partially mediated by task salience and task expectancies. Feedback timing and feedback specificity demonstrated both main and interaction effects on resource allocations. Results also demonstrated that performers do better on tasks for which higher quality feedback is available; this effect was mediated by resources allocated to tasks. The practical and theoretical implications of the role of the feedback environment in managing performance are discussed.

Taxonomy of microinteractions: defining microgestures based on ergonomic and scenario-dependent requirements

Abstract: This paper explores how microgestures can allow us to execute a secondary task, for example controlling mobile applications, without interrupting the manual primary task, for instance, driving a car. In order to design microgestures iteratively, we interviewed sports- and physiotherapists while asking them to use task related props, such as a steering wheel, a cash card, and a pen for simulating driving a car, an ATM scenario, and a drawing task. The primary objective here is to define microgestures that are easily performable without interrupting or interfering the primary task. Using expert interviews, we developed a taxonomy that classifies these gestures according to their task context. We also assessed the ergonomic and attentional attributes that influence the feasibility and task suitability of microinteractions, and evaluated their level of resources required. Accordingly, we defined 21 microgestures that allow performing microinteractions within a manual, dual task context. Our taxonomy poses a basis for designing microinteraction techniques.