Showing papers on "Transactional leadership published in 2018"
TL;DR: The authors compared three emerging forms of positive leadership that emphasize ethical and moral behavior (i.e., authentic leadership, ethical leadership, and servant leadership) with transformational leadership in their associations with a wide range of organizationally relevant measures.
689 citations
03 Oct 2018
TL;DR: The transactional model of reading, writing, and teaching that has been presented constitutes, in a sense, a body of hypotheses to be investigated as discussed by the authors, which has profound implications for understanding language.
Abstract: Recognizing the essential nature of reader and text, the transactional theory requires an underlying metaphor of organic activity and reciprocity. This chapter discusses the reading process first, then the writing process. It presents the problems of communication and validity of interpretation before considering implications for teaching and research. The chapter suggests some general considerations concerning research topics and theoretical and methodological pitfalls. The transactional model of reading, writing, and teaching that has been presented constitutes, in a sense, a body of hypotheses to be investigated. The transactional concept has profound implications for understanding language. Traditionally, language has been viewed as primarily a self-contained system or code, a set of arbitrary rules and conventions that is manipulated as a tool by speakers and writers or imprints itself on the minds of listeners and readers. The concepts of transaction, the transactional nature of language, and selective attention now can be applied to analysis of the reading process.
557 citations
TL;DR: The authors explored several types of school contexts (institutional, community, socio-cultural, political, economic, school improvement) and what they have learned about how they shape school leadership practice and found that the need to contextualize leadership highlights deficiencies in modal research.
Abstract: Research on educational leadership and management has resulted in the accumulation of increasingly persuasive findings concerning the impact school leadership can have on school performance. Indeed, there is a growing consensus that there exists a generic set of leadership practices (e.g. goal setting, developing people) which must be adapted to meet the needs and constraints that describe different school contexts. However, to date, researchers have yet to develop a theory or report comprehensive findings on this challenge. This paper explores several types of school contexts (institutional, community, socio-cultural, political, economic, school improvement) and what we have learned about how they shape school leadership practice. The analysis leads to several conclusions and recommendations. First, it affirms, elaborates and extends the assertion made by scholars of the importance of examining leadership in context. Second, the need to contextualize leadership highlights deficiencies in modal research m...
311 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a meta-analysis of the direct effects of women's representation in leadership positions and organizational financial performance was conducted, finding that women's leadership may affect firm performance in general and sales performance in particular.
216 citations
TL;DR: Investigation of the effect of two leadership styles – Transformational and Authentic leadership on process and product innovation in higher education institutions in Jordan reveals that Transformational leadership and Knowledge sharing have a positive impact on the innovativeness of higher education institution in Jordan.
152 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a two-stage field study of 150 leader-follower dyads employing a cross-level polynomial regression analysis supported their expectation-match hypotheses and showed that followers' perceptions of laissez-faire leadership as a mediator subsequently lead to lower leader effectiveness evaluation.
149 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored integrative, knowledge-centered team mechanisms through which transformational leadership affects team innovative performance, and they found that transformational leaders promoted within-team knowledge sharing and team innovative performances through an integration mechanism manifest as team cooperative norms.
139 citations
TL;DR: Different dimensions of the dark triad were most strongly related to different knowledge hiding strategies and gender moderated the relationships between narcissism and psychopathy with transactional psychological contract.
127 citations
119 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the relative influence of two distinct leadership styles, servant leadership and entrepreneurial leadership, on the organizational commitment and innovative behavior of employees working in social enterprises was examined, and it was found that, although servant leadership was positively related to followers' organizational commitment, the relationship between entrepreneurial leadership and organizational commitment was insignificant.
Abstract: The present study examines the relative influence of two distinct leadership styles, servant leadership and entrepreneurial leadership, on the organizational commitment and innovative behavior of employees working in social enterprises. Analyzing data from 169 employees and 42 social entrepreneurs, we found that, although servant leadership was positively related to followers’ organizational commitment, the relationship between entrepreneurial leadership and organizational commitment was insignificant. In contrast, whilst we found evidence that entrepreneurial leadership was positively related to followers’ innovative behavior, the relationship between servant leadership and employees’ innovative behavior was insignificant. Our research contributes to the underdeveloped literature on leadership in social enterprises by exploring the relative effectiveness of different leadership styles (namely an entrepreneurial leadership style and a servant leadership style) in promoting follower work attitudes ...
88 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors evaluate the relationship between the appointment of women to CEO or Chair positions and firm performance, and shed light on the differences between family and non-family firms.
Abstract: We evaluate the relationship between the appointment of women to CEO or Chair positions and firm performance, and shed light on the differences between family and nonfamily firms. By using a propensity score matching approach on a sample of 394 French firms over the period 2001–2010, we find major discordances between women’s leadership style and family business expectations relative to firm performance, as measured by return on assets and Tobin’s q. Notably, our results support the conjecture that family firms, which are more conducive to transformational leadership, offer women a more appropriate climate for exercising the function of Chair than that of CEO. In contrast, women CEOs perform better in nonfamily firms. Our findings move away from the predominant focus on barriers and stereotypes images about the female leadership and support the contingency theory of leadership, which states that the effectiveness of a leadership style depends on the organization and culture in which leaders operate, and on task-related positions
TL;DR: In this article, the mediating role of goal clarity in the relationship between leadership styles and project success is examined, and possible underlying mechanisms (i.e. goal clarity) are examined.
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine the mediating role of goal clarity in the relationship between leadership styles and project success. The paper draws on full-range leadership theory, and contextualizes leadership styles such as transformational leadership style, and transactional leadership style (active management by exception, and contingent reward) to temporary project environment.,Data are collected (in year 2017) from 248 individuals working in ten large project-based organizations from different sectors, each having multiple units in Pakistan. Respondents comprise functional managers and individuals (who have lead or worked on projects), as well as dedicated project managers.,Goal clarity partially mediates the relationship between transformational leadership style and project success. However, in case of the transactional leadership style, there is no mediation as transactional leadership style is not associated with goal clarity. Furthermore, contingent reward is positively associated to project success, while active management by exception is negatively associated to project success.,Research suggests that the underlying mechanisms of the relationship between leadership styles (transactional and transformational) and project success are less clear and need to be further explored. This study contributes to literature by answering such calls, and examines possible underlying mechanisms (i.e. goal clarity) in the relationship between leadership styles and project success.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated and clarified aspects of the multilevel nature of authentic leadership and its effects on followers, and they hypothesized that AL would have distinct effects through both personalized AL and generalized AL, which is a leader's indirect or group-based effect on a follower as a result of leadership effects among the followers coworkers.
TL;DR: This article introduced a critical approach to follower/ship studies through exploring the unarticulated but highly influential implicit academic theory of follower and ship that informs dominant paradigmatic paradigmatic theories.
Abstract: This article introduces a critical approach to follower/ship studies through exploring the unarticulated but highly influential implicit academic theory of follower/ship that informs dominant parad...
TL;DR: This systematic review indicates that manager-staff dyads are influential in translating research evidence into action and reveals that leadership for research use involves change and task-oriented behaviours that influence the environmental milieu and the organisational infrastructure that supports clinical care.
Abstract: Leadership by point-of-care and senior managers is increasingly recognized as critical to the acceptance and use of research evidence in practice. The purpose of this systematic review was to identify the leadership behaviours of managers that are associated with research use by clinical staff in nursing and allied health professionals. A mixed methods systematic review was performed. Eight electronic bibliographic databases were searched. Studies examining the association between leadership behaviours and nurses and allied health professionals’ use of research were eligible for inclusion. Studies were excluded if leadership could not be clearly attributed to someone in a management position. Two reviewers independently screened abstracts, reviewed full-text articles, extracted data and performed quality assessments. Narrative synthesis was conducted. The search yielded 7019 unique titles and abstracts after duplicates were removed. Three hundred five full-text articles were reviewed, and 31 studies reported in 34 articles were included. Methods used were qualitative (n = 19), cross-sectional survey (n = 9), and mixed methods (n = 3). All studies included nurses, and six also included allied health professionals. Twelve leadership behaviours were extracted from the data for point-of-care managers and ten for senior managers. Findings indicated that managers performed a diverse range of leadership behaviours that encompassed change-oriented, relation-oriented and task-oriented behaviours. The most commonly described behavior was support for the change, which involved demonstrating conceptual and operational commitment to research-based practices. This systematic review adds to the growing body of evidence that indicates that manager-staff dyads are influential in translating research evidence into action. Findings also reveal that leadership for research use involves change and task-oriented behaviours that influence the environmental milieu and the organisational infrastructure that supports clinical care. While findings explain how managers enact leadership for research use, we now require robust methodological studies to determine which behaviours are effective in enabling research use with nurses and allied health professionals for high-quality evidence-based care. PROSPERO CRD42014007660
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that despite this more holistic recognition of leadership processes within the broader leadership literature, current conceptualizations and analyses of destructive leadership continue to focus too heavily on behaviors and characteristics of bad leaders.
Abstract: Over the last 25 years, there has been an increasing fascination with the “dark” side of leadership. The term “destructive leadership” has been used as an overarching expression to describe various “bad” leader behaviors believed to be associated with harmful consequences for followers and organizations. Yet, there is a general consensus and appreciation in the broader leadership literature that leadership represents much more than the behaviors of those in positions of influence. It is a dynamic, cocreational process between leaders, followers, and environments, the product of which contributes to group and organizational outcomes. In this paper, we argue that, despite this more holistic recognition of leadership processes within the broader leadership literature, current conceptualizations and analyses of destructive leadership continue to focus too heavily on behaviors and characteristics of “bad” leaders. In our view, to achieve a more balanced understanding of destructive leadership, it is important to adopt more integrative approaches that are based in the contemporary leadership discourse and that recognize flawed or toxic leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive environments as interdependent elements of a broader destructive leadership process. To this end, we offer a critique of the destructive leadership literature, propose a broader definition of destructive leadership, and highlight gaps in our understanding of leaders, followers, and environments in contributing to destructive leadership processes. Finally, we conclude by discussing strategies for examining destructive leadership in a broader, more holistic fashion.
TL;DR: This article revisited Meindl et al's (1985) "romance of leadership" thesis and extended these ideas in a number of inter-related ways, arguing that romanticism can shape conceptions not only of leaders, but also of followers, their agency and their resistance.
Abstract: This paper revisits Meindl et al’s (1985) ‘romance of leadership’ thesis and extends these ideas in a number of inter-related ways. First, it argues that the thesis has sometimes been neglected and/or misinterpreted in subsequent studies. Second, the paper suggests that romanticism is a much broader and more historically rich term with wider implications for leadership studies than originally proposed. Arguing that romanticism stretches beyond leader attribution, we connect leadership theory to a more enduring and naturalistic tradition of romantic thought that has survived and evolved since the mid-18th century. Third, the paper demonstrates the contemporary relevance of the romanticism critique. It reveals how the study of leadership continues to be characterised by romanticising tendencies in many of its most influential theories, illustrating this argument with reference to spiritual and authentic leadership theories, which only recognise positive engagement with leaders. Equally, the paper suggests that romanticism can shape conceptions not only of leaders, but also of followers, their agency, and their (potential for) resistance. We conclude by discussing future possible research directions for the romanticism critique that extend well beyond its original focus on leader attribution to inform a broader critical approach to leadership studies.
Book•
14 Sep 2018
TL;DR: The Tracking Wars: School Politics at Work Leadership Lessons: Map the Terrain, Hone Your Skills Part III: The Human Resource Frame 6. Sagging Morale Leadership lessons: Build Relationships and Empower Yourself Part IV: The Structural Frame 7. Student Discipline: Who's Really in Charge? 8. Standards Leadership Lessons, Align the Structure With the Work Part V: The Symbolic Frame 9. The End of the Year: Symbols and Culture in Schools 10. Teaching and Leading: Finding a Balance 12. "I'm Just a Great Teacher!"
Abstract: Acknowledgments About the Authors Introduction Part I: A Pair of Rookies 1. A New Teacher's First Day 2. Getting Started on the Right Foot 3. A New Principal Finds a Wise Friend Leadership Lessons: Seeing and Solving Barriers to Entry Part II: The Political Frame 4. The Old Guard and the New Principal 5. The Tracking Wars: School Politics at Work Leadership Lessons: Map the Terrain, Hone Your Skills Part III: The Human Resource Frame 6. Sagging Morale Leadership Lessons: Build Relationships and Empower Yourself Part IV: The Structural Frame 7. Student Discipline: Who's Really in Charge? 8. Standards Leadership Lessons: Align the Structure With the Work Part V: The Symbolic Frame 9. The End of the Year: Symbols and Culture in Schools 10. "I'm Just a Great Teacher!" Leadership Lessons: Celebrate Values and Culture Part VI: Values, Ethics, and Spirit 11. Teaching and Leading: Finding a Balance 12. A Talk About Values 13. The Essence of Teaching: Leaving a Legacy 14. Passing the Torch Epilogue Annotated Bibliography
TL;DR: Wang et al. as discussed by the authors proposed that transformational leadership and transactional leadership are most likely to predict outcomes, under uncertain social contexts, when accompanied by organizational financial and non-financial rewards.
Abstract: Drawing on organismic integration theory, we propose that transformational leadership and transactional leadership are most likely to predict outcomes, under uncertain social contexts, when accompanied by organizational financial and nonfinancial rewards. Using survey data from professional employees and their supervisors, from 260 Chinese enterprises, with less than 5 years of entrepreneurial experience, we found that (1) transformational leadership is not significantly related to employee creativity, while transactional leadership is positively related to followers’ creative behaviors, (2) synergy between transformational leadership and financial rewards and between transactional leadership and nonfinancial rewards accentuate the effect on employee creativity respectively, (3) psychological empowerment fully mediates the aforementioned relationship. These findings offer a new theoretical framework for future theory development of leadership.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors propose a process ontology to explore one central aspect of leadership work, the production of direction, processually, by building on geographer Massey's conception of space, thus adding a spatial dimension that enables them to conceptualize direction as the development of an evolving relational configuration.
Abstract: Although the idea of leadership being a process is clearly stated in leadership definitions, most researchers focus on individuals rather than observing and studying processes. This contradiction has been highlighted by a number of scholars turning to leadership processes and practices, thereby drawing attention to the interactional and social aspects of the phenomenon. Such contributions mostly take process perspectives in which entities still play an important role. In this article, I therefore aim at contributing to leadership studies based on a process ontology by exploring one central aspect of leadership work, the production of direction, processually. I do so by building on geographer Massey’s conception of space, thus adding a spatial dimension that enables me to conceptualize direction as the development of an evolving relational configuration. In order to empirically explore such a conceptualization, two constructs are proposed: the construction of positions and the construction of issues. The r...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the effect of leaders' core self-evaluation on the display of ethical leadership and the moderating role of employees' exchange ideology in the relationship between ethical leaders and employees' job performance (i.e., task performance and organizational citizenship behavior).
Abstract: With the increasing demand for ethical standards in the current business environment, ethical leadership has received particular attention. Drawing on self-verification theory and social exchange theory, this study investigated the effect of leaders’ core self-evaluation on the display of ethical leadership and the moderating role of employees’ exchange ideology in the relationship between ethical leadership and employees’ job performance (i.e., task performance and organizational citizenship behavior). Consistent with the hypotheses, the results from a sample of 225 dyads of employees and their immediate leaders showed a positive relationship between leaders’ core self-evaluation and ethical leadership. Moreover, the results showed that ethical leadership mediates the effects of leaders’ core self-evaluation on employees’ job performance. Furthermore, we found that employees’ exchange ideology moderates the relationship between ethical leadership and job performance. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explored the relationship between the two leadership styles and innovation atmosphere in enterprises and found that transformational leadership style is more helpful for building innovation atmosphere than transactional leadership style.
TL;DR: In this paper, the influence of the top managers' different leadership styles on organizational innovation was analyzed through the mediation mechanism of openness involving open breadth and open depth, and the results indicated that transformational leadership enhances, while transactional leadership reduces, the organizational innovation performance.
Abstract: Purpose The purpose of this study is to answer the following two questions: (1) What are the influences of the top managers’ different leadership styles on organizational innovation? (2) What is the mechanism by which the different leaderships exert different effects on organizational innovation? Design/methodology/approach To test the hypothesized model, a data set based on 133 MBA part-time students from Tsinghua University and Zhejiang University in China was built, after interviewing several top managers as a pilot study. With the help of SPSS macro, hierarchical regression and bootstrapping analysis, the paper analyzes the effects of two leadership styles on innovation performance, through the mediation mechanism of openness involving open breadth and open depth. Findings Our results indicate that transformational leadership enhances, while transactional leadership reduces, the organizational innovation performance. The openness breadth and openness depth not only mediate the beneficial effect of tra...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors synthesize three key drivers for change and identify a set of core transformations sales forces are undergoing: the composition of the offer that suppliers bring to customers, the nature of the relationships between suppliers and customers, and the configuration of sales organizations and the role of sales people.
TL;DR: Entrepreneurial leadership had a significant positive impact on nurses' innovation work behavior and most strongly improved idea exploration, followed by idea generation, idea implementation, and idea championing.
Abstract: Purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of entrepreneurial leadership on nurses’ innovation work behavior and its dimensions.
Design and Methods
This cross-sectional study employed the 10-item Innovation Work Behavior Questionnaire and the 8-item Entrepreneurial Leadership Questionnaire to explore the impact of entrepreneurial leadership on the innovation work behavior of 273 nurses from public and private hospitals in Iran.
Findings
Entrepreneurial leadership had a significant positive impact on nurses’ innovation work behavior and most strongly improved idea exploration, followed by idea generation, idea implementation, and idea championing.
Conclusions
Entrepreneurial leadership was effective in enhancing nurses’ innovation work behavior. More attention needs to be focused on developing entrepreneurial leadership competencies and on developing nurse leaders.
Clinical Relevance
Healthcare policies and strategies are needed to facilitate the implementation of entrepreneurial leadership by providing healthcare leaders with the appropriate environment.
TL;DR: Insight is provided into the type of leadership that is best suited to the dynamic and changing health care system in Saudi Arabia and it is possible that transformational leaders could influence and induce positive changes in nursing.
Abstract: © 2018 The Authors. Aims: To examine how nurse managers' leadership styles, and nurses' organisational commitment in Saudi Arabia relate. Background: Effective leadership is influential in staff retention; however, recruiting and maintaining nurses is an increasing problem in Saudi Arabia. Methods: Using a survey design, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire and the Organisational Commitment Questionnaire were distributed to a sample of 219 nurses and nurse managers from two hospitals in Saudi Arabia. Results: Transformational leadership was the most dominant leadership style. After controlling for the influence of manager/staff status, nationality and hospitals, transformational leadership was the strongest contributor to organisational commitment. Perceptions of both transformational and transactional leadership styles, increased with age for nurse managers and nursing staff. Conclusion: Introducing the Full Range of Leadership model to the Saudi nursing workforce could help to prepare Saudi nurses for positions as nurse managers and leaders. Implications for Nursing Management: The study provides insight into the type of leadership that is best suited to the dynamic and changing health care system in Saudi Arabia. It is possible that transformational leaders could influence and induce positive changes in nursing.
23 Apr 2018
TL;DR: Transformational leadership styles had a positive impact on stimulating motivation, assuring job satisfaction, and consolidating teamwork among health workers compared with those who demonstrated transactional skills or laissez-faire styles.
Abstract: Background Leadership is key to strengthening performance of Health Systems. Leadership styles are important organizational antecedents, especially in influencing employee's motivation, job satisfaction, and teamwork. There is limited research exploring this relationship among health workers in resource-limited settings such as Uganda. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles and motivation, job satisfaction, and teamwork of health workers in Uganda. Method We conducted a cross-sectional study in 3 geographic regions of Uganda in November 2015, using self-administered questionnaires with 564 health workers from 228 health facilities. Data were collected on health workers' perception of leadership styles displayed by their facility leaders, their level of motivation, job satisfaction, and team work. Using Pearson correlation, relationships among variables were identified and associations of the components of leadership styles with motivation, job satisfaction, and teamwork was found using multivariable logistic regression. Results Health workers in Uganda preferred leaders who were transformational (62%) compared with being transactional (42%) or laissez-faire (14%). Transformational leadership was positively correlated with motivation (r=0.32), job satisfaction (r=0.38), and team work (r=0.48), while transactional leadership was positively correlated with job satisfaction (r=0.21) and teamwork (r=0.18). Motivation was positively associated with leaders who displayed idealized influence-behavior (odds ratio [OR]=3.7; 95% CI, 1.33-10.48) and intellectual stimulation (OR=2.4; 95% CI, 1.13-5.15) but negatively associated with management by exception (OR=0.4; 95% CI, 0.19-0.82). Job satisfaction was positively associated with intellectual stimulation (OR=5.7; 95% CI, 1.83-17.79). Teamwork was positively associated with idealized influence-behavior (OR=1.07-8.57), idealized influence-attributed (OR=3.9; 95% CI, 1.24-12.36), and contingent reward (OR=5.6; 95% CI, 1.87-17.01). Conclusion Transformational styles had a positive impact on stimulating motivation, assuring job satisfaction, and consolidating teamwork among health workers compared with those who demonstrated transactional skills or laissez-faire styles. Recommendation Supporting transformational leadership skills development in health facility leaders could encourage health worker motivation, strengthen job satisfaction, and maintain cohesion among health workers for better service delivery.
TL;DR: Wang et al. as discussed by the authors developed and tested a model of the underlying mechanisms linking transformational leadership and employee creativity using a sample of 240 matched middle-level manager and front-line supervisor dyads from a large foreign joint-venture company in China.
Abstract: This study develops and tests a model of the underlying mechanisms linking transformational leadership and employee creativity using a sample of 240 matched middle-level manager and front-line supervisor dyads from a large foreign joint-venture company in China. We propose that personal control and employee creative personality serve as a unique psychological mechanism and an important boundary condition to simultaneously influence the relationship between transformational leadership and employee creativity. Results of moderated-mediation analyses provided support for our conceptual model, showing that transformational leadership was positively related to personal control, which also had a positive impact on employee creativity. Furthermore, creative personality was found to moderate the relationship between transformational leadership and personal control, which in turn, mediated the joint effect on employee creativity. Findings of this study provide insights into the research on leadership development and work design in HRM, which can inform human resource managers to design effective strategies and systems that can increase employees' creativity.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify leadership styles that impacted the digital transformation of an organization and evaluate the success of this transformation in the context of leadership styles occurring naturally within an organization.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to identify leadership styles that impacted the digital transformation of an organization. Six information technology leaders from healthcare organizations were chosen to lead and participate in a digital transformation effort across several organizations in the Midwest (USA). The information collected was transcribed for clarity and to identify patterns in leadership styles that were evident. A qualitative research design using semi-structured interviews was established to determine this impact and how leadership style influenced an organization’s direction regarding its digital transformation. Specific research literature in this area was addressed and provided a framework for this issue, including the types of leadership styles which were commonly used. These styles influenced large-scale decisions within an organization. In addition, the success of this transformation was evaluated in the context of leadership styles occurring naturally within an organization. The research findings indicated that leadership style was highly impactful in transforming organizations and employee-based involvement and input played a critical role in the success of the change effort. In addition, organizational leaders lacked some of the technical knowledge required to lead this project. Leadership styles are influential in organizations and can implement norms, expectations, and desirable outcomes during large-scale transformative projects.
TL;DR: In this article, a self-reported survey of executive public leaders in Turkey found that the core leadership competencies have a positive relationship with the effectiveness of crisis management and that task-oriented leadership behaviors had the highest level of impact on the perceived effectiveness.
Abstract: The goal of this article is to discover how leadership competencies affect the perceived effectiveness of crisis management. The study, based on a self-reported survey of executive public leaders in Turkey, found that the core leadership competencies have a positive relationship with the effectiveness of crisis management. Among task–oriented, people–oriented, and organization-oriented categories of leadership behaviors, task-oriented leadership behaviors were found with the highest level of impact on the effectiveness of crisis management. The study demonstrated the importance of the core leadership competencies in the effectiveness of crisis leadership. The hypothesis testing with the covariance structure model supported the positive impact of the core leadership competencies on the effectiveness of crisis management. This study contributes to the literature on leadership during crisis situations, and also provides proposals for public managers and practitioners to increase their effectiveness i...