Showing papers on "Transesterification published in 2021"

A review on the waste biomass derived catalysts for biodiesel production

Abstract: Biodiesel is produced through the process of transesterification of different edible and non-edible oils and animal fats. The process takes place either in the presence of a homogeneous or heterogeneous catalyst. A suitable catalyst is selected based on the amount of free fatty acid (FFA) content present in the oil. The major difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts is that the homogeneous catalysts are insensitive to the amount of free fatty acids present in the oil. Also, homogeneous catalysts are toxic, highly flammable, and corrosive. Besides, the use of homogeneous catalysts produces soaps as a by-product and a bulk of wastewater which requires additional pretreatment methods and expenses for proper disposal. The research on the biodiesel synthesis in the presence of heterogeneous catalysts (carbon-based catalysts) is continuously studied to achieve a suitable process to produce biodiesel and to improve fuel quality on an industrial scale. Heterogeneous catalysts have great significance in the biodiesel production because of their simple and less expensive manufacturing process, ease of separation, and high reusability. They can be prepared easily by functionalizing the carbon surface with acid or base. Carbon-based catalysts have a high surface area and porosity that can enhance the rate of the esterification/transesterification process. Also, solid acid catalysts can convert the low-quality feedstocks to biodiesel in the presence of active acidic sites. Besides, carbon-based catalysts can be produced through waste e.g. sugarcane bagasse and their use make the production of biodiesel “Greener” one. This review paper is mainly based on the utilization of different catalysts derived from waste biomass in the biodiesel. Under optimum conditions biodiesel (FAME) yields 90%–99% were reported in the literature.

Heterogeneous carbon-based catalyst modified by alkaline earth metal oxides for biodiesel production: Parametric and kinetic study

Abstract: This study reports the synthesis of dual-functional heterogeneous catalyst for valorizing the plant-based oils to produce biodiesel as a cleaner fuel to conserve the environment and meet the current energy demand Pristine carbon as a support for the catalyst is produced from waste date seeds powder before oil extraction and modified with alkaline earth metal oxides to utilize it for transesterification to produce biodiesel The synthesized catalyst before usage is characterized by several techniques which include XRD, SEM, EDS, BET and TPD The catalyst characterization revealed its suitability for transesterification reaction and the process is optimized while the synthesized catalyst is used for the reaction The optimized yield of biodiesel is 9427 wt% when the set parameters of a temperature of 65 °C, time 90 min, methanol to oil molar ratio of 15 and catalyst loading of 4 wt% To commercialize the catalyst, the efficiency was evaluated using oils from different sources to produce biodiesel The kinetic study revealed that while using the synthesized heterogeneous catalyst for transesterification of non-edible oil to produce biodiesel it was not an energy-intensive process Further on, the fuel properties were measured and compared to American ASTM and European EN standards which ensured that the produced biodiesel is of potential and that it can be commercialized Thus, the study gave an overall complete scenario from an economical catalyst to efficient fuel production which can be advantageous in the society

A review on biodiesel feedstocks and production technologies

Abstract: Biodiesel is a long-chain fatty acid ester produced from renewable and biological resources such as used cooking, animal fat, vegetable oil, and algae. Biodiesel is a renewable and clean fuel as it reduces carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter emissions compared with petroleum-based diesel fuel. Production of biodiesel from renewable resources is done through the transesterification reaction at which the organic group (alkyl) of alcohol is substituted with the organic group of a triglyceride– the main component of the feedstock –producing fatty acid alkyl ester (biodiesel) and crude glycerol. Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration if its specifications is identical to the international standard specifications provided by American standard for testing materials (ASTM) or EN14214 in the European Union for alternative fuels. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel in many applications such as generators, diesel vehicles, heaters, and boilers. In this paper, the different types of biodiesel feedstocks, feedstocks treatment methods, and biodiesel production technologies are reviewed and summarized.

Biodiesel Production Using Homogeneous, Heterogeneous, and Enzyme Catalysts via Transesterification and Esterification Reactions: a Critical Review.

Abstract: The excessive utilization of petroleum resources leads to global warming, crude oil price fluctuations, and the fast depletion of petroleum reserves. Biodiesel has gained importance over the last few years as a clean, sustainable, and renewable energy source. This review provides knowledge of biodiesel production via transesterification/esterification using different catalysts, their prospects, and their challenges. The intensive research on homogeneous chemical catalysts points to the challenges in using high free fatty acids containing oils, such as waste cooking oils and animal fats. The problems faced are soap formation and the difficulty in product separation. On the other hand, heterogeneous catalysts are more preferable in biodiesel synthesis due to their ease of separation and reusability. However, in-depth studies show the limited activity and selectivity issues. Using biomass waste-based catalysts can reduce the biodiesel production cost as the materials are readily available and cheap. The use of an enzymatic approach has gained precedence in recent times. Additionally, immobilization of these enzymes has also improved the statistics because of their excellent functional properties like easy separation and reusability. However, free/liquid lipases are also growing faster due to better mass transfer with reactants. Biocatalysts are exceptional in good selectivity and mild operational conditions, but attractive features are veiled with the operational costs. Nanocatalysts play a vital role in heterogeneous catalysis and lipase immobilization due to their excellent selectivity, reactivity, faster reaction rates owing to their higher surface area, and easy recovery from the products and reuse for several cycles.

Biodiesel production from novel non-edible caper (Capparis spinosa L.) seeds oil employing Cu–Ni doped ZrO2 catalyst

Abstract: The rapid depletion of fossil fuel resources and climatic changes has triggered the researchers' attention to find an alternative and renewable energy source. Thus, biodiesel has been recognized as a potential alternative to petrodiesel for its biodegradability, non-toxicity, and environment-friendly attributes. In this study, an efficient and recyclable Cu–Ni doped ZrO2 catalyst was synthesized and used to produce biodiesel from a novel non-edible caper (Capparis spinosa L.) seed oil. The synthesized catalyst was characterized by x-ray diffraction, fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive x-ray analysis. The catalyst was reused in four consecutive transesterification reactions without losing any significant catalytic efficiency. Transesterification reaction conditions were optimized via response surface methodology based on Box-Behnken design for predicting optimum biodiesel yields by drawing 3D surface plots. Maximum biodiesel yield of 90.2% was obtained under optimal operating conditions of 1:6 M ratio of oil to methanol, reaction temperature of 70 °C, reaction time of 1.5 h, and 2.5% catalyst loading. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance (1H and 13C) analysis confirmed the high quality of biodiesel produced from non-edible caper (Capparis spinosa L.) seed oil. The fuel properties of the produced biodiesel were also found, such as kinematic viscosity (4.17 cS T), density (0.8312 kg/L), flash point (72 °C), acid no (0.21 mgKOH/g) and sulphur content (0.00042 wt%). These properties were matched and are in close agreement with the International Biodiesel Standards of European Union (EU-14214), China GB/T 20,828 (2007), and American (ASTM6751). Thus, non-edible Capparis spinosa L. seed oil and Cu–Ni doped ZrO2 catalyst appeared to be highly active, stable, and cheap candidates to boost the future biodiesel industry.