Showing papers on "Transformational leadership published in 2006"
TL;DR: In this article, a literature review focuses on the emerging construct of ethical leadership and compares this construct with related concepts that share a common concern for a moral dimension of leadership (e.g., spiritual, authentic, and transformational leadership).
Abstract: Our literature review focuses on the emerging construct of ethical leadership and compares this construct with related concepts that share a common concern for a moral dimension of leadership (e.g., spiritual, authentic, and transformational leadership). Drawing broadly from the intersection of the ethics and leadership literatures, we offer propositions about the antecedents and outcomes of ethical leadership. We also identify issues and questions to be addressed in the future and discuss their implications for research and practice. Our review indicates that ethical leadership remains largely unexplored, offering researchers opportunities for new discoveries and leaders opportunities to improve their effectiveness.
2,542 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a course on how leaders of organizations can deal with chronic management and leadership problems that pose significant challenges to them, including the difficulty of designing organizations capable of coping with highly dynamic business environments, the challenge of developing strategies and structures for hypercompetitive conditions, the greater complexity of managing global enterprises, the difficult task of shaping a corporate culture, managing politics and conflict between individuals and organizational units, motivating employees who are more mobile than ever, designing attractive incentive systems, leading teams effectively, and so on.
Abstract: Business organizations of all types face chronic management and leadership problems that pose significant challenges to them. These problems include the difficulty of designing organizations capable of coping with highly dynamic business environments, the challenge of developing strategies and structures for hypercompetitive conditions, the greater complexity of managing global enterprises, the difficult task of shaping a corporate culture, managing politics and conflict between individuals and organizational units, motivating employees who are more mobile than ever, designing attractive incentive systems, leading teams effectively, and so on. Such challenges and how leaders of organizations can deal with them are the subject of this course.
1,943 citations
TL;DR: This article found that transformational leadership is associated with the way followers view their jobs, in terms of Hackman and Oldham's (1976) core job characteristics, such as intrinsic motivation, and goal commitment.
Abstract: Although the effects of transformational leadership on task performance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) are well-documented, the mechanisms that explain those effects remain unclear. We propose that transformational leadership is associated with the way followers view their jobs, in terms of Hackman and Oldham’s (1976) core job characteristics. Results of our study support a structural model whereby indirect effects supplement the direct effects of transformational leadership on task performance and OCB through the mechanisms of job characteristics, intrinsic motivation, and goal commitment. Additional analyses revealed that transformational leadership relationships were significantly stronger for followers who perceived highquality leader-member exchange.
1,517 citations
01 Jan 2006
1,066 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an integrated construct of servant leadership derived from a review of the literature is presented, which includes calling, listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, growth, and community building.
Abstract: This article presents an integrated construct of servant leadership derived from a review of the literature. Subscale items were developed to measure 11 potential dimensions of servant leadership: calling, listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, growth, and community building. Data from 80 leaders and 388 raters were used to test the internal consistency, confirm factor structure, and assess convergent, divergent, and predictive validity. Results produced five servant leadership factors—altruistic calling, emotional healing, persuasive mapping, wisdom, and organizational stewardship—with significant relations to transformational leadership, leader-member exchange, extra effort, satisfaction, and organizational effectiveness. Strong factor structures and good performance in all validity criteria indicate that the instrument offers value for future research.
1,026 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the structure of the American emergency management system, the chart development of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, and conflicts arising from the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the attempt to impose a command and control system on a very collaborative organizational culture in a collaborative sociopolitical and legal context are discussed.
Abstract: Collaboration is a necessary foundation for dealing with both natural and technological hazards and disasters and the consequences of terrorism. This analysis describes the structure of the American emergency management system, the charts development of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, and identifies conflicts arising from the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the attempt to impose a command and control system on a very collaborative organizational culture in a very collaborative sociopolitical and legal context. The importance of collaboration is stressed, and recommendations are offered on how to improve the amount and value of collaborative activities. New leadership strategies are recommended that derive their power from effective strategies and the transformational power of a compelling vision, rather than from hierarchy, rank, or standard operating procedures.
970 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of a school-specific model of transformational leadership on teachers (motivation, capacities, and work settings), their classroom practices, and gains in student achievement were investigated.
Abstract: Using data from a larger 4-year evaluation of England's National Literacy and Numeracy Strategies, this study tested the effects of a school-specific model of transformational leadership on teachers (motivation, capacities, and work settings), their classroom practices, and gains in student achievement. Some 2,290 teachers from 655 primary schools responded to 2 forms of a survey (literacy and numeracy) measuring all variables in our framework. Our measure of student achievement was gains in the British government's own Key Stage 2 tests over either 2 (numeracy) or 3 (literacy) years. Path analytic techniques were used to analyze the several different versions of the results. Results indicate significant effects of leadership on teachers' classroom practices but not on student achievement.
820 citations
TL;DR: In a series of studies, this article examined the role of positive emotions in the charismatic leadership process and found that mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers.
Abstract: In a series of studies, we examine the role of positive emotions in the charismatic leadership process. In Studies 1 and 2, ratings of charisma in a natural work setting were linked to leaders' positive emotional expressions. In Study 3, leaders' positive emotional expressions were linked to mood states of simulated followers. Results suggest that mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers. In Study 4, we used a trained actor and manipulated leaders' positive emotional expressions to isolate the effects of positive emotions from the potential effects of non-emotional aspects of effective leadership (e.g., vision, other inspirational influence processes). A positive link between leader emotions and follower mood was found. Results also indicate that both leaders' positive emotional expressions and follower mood influenced ratings of leader effectiveness and attraction to the leader.
786 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a quantitative review of 93 studies examining relationships between team design features and team performance is presented. But the effect varies depending on task type and team member heterogeneity and performance.
749 citations
TL;DR: This article used transformational leadership theory to explore the role of CEOs in determining the extent to which their firms engage in corporate social responsibility (CSR) using data from 56 US and Canadian firms.
Abstract: We use transformational leadership theory to explore the role of CEOs in determining the extent to which their firms engage in corporate social responsibility (CSR). We test this theory using data from 56 US and Canadian firms. CEO intellectual stimulation (but not CEO charismatic leadership) is found to be significantly associated with the propensity of the firm to engage in ‘strategic’ CSR, or those CSR activities that are most likely to be related to the firm's corporate and business-level strategies. Thus, studies that ignore the role of leadership in CSR may yield imprecise conclusions regarding the antecedents and consequences of these activities. We also critique transformational leadership theory, in terms of its overemphasis on charismatic forms of leadership. This leads to a reconceptualization of transformational leadership, which emphasizes the intellectual stimulation component in the context of CSR.
TL;DR: In this paper, the relative influence of vertical versus shared leadership within new venture top management teams on the performance of startups using two different samples was investigated, and both vertical and shared leadership were found to be highly significant predictors of new venture performance.
Abstract: The current study investigated the relative influence of vertical versus shared leadership within new venture top management teams on the performance of startups using two different samples. Vertical leadership stems from an appointed or formal leader of a team (e.g., the CEO), whereas shared leadership is a form of distributed leadership stemming from within a team. Transformational, transactional, empowering, and directive dimensions of both vertical and shared leadership were examined. New venture performance was considered in terms of revenue growth and employee growth. The first sample was comprised of 66 top management teams of firms drawn from Inc. Magazine's annual list of America's 500 fastest growing startups. The seconded sample consisted of 154 top management teams of startups randomly drawn from Dun and Bradstreet, which compiles the most extensive database available for identifying relatively young American-based ventures. Both vertical and shared leadership were found to be highly significant predictors of new venture performance. Further, hierarchical regression analysis found the shared leadership variables to account for a significant amount of variance in new venture performance beyond the vertical leadership variables. These results were consistent across both samples, thus providing robust evidence for the value of shared leadership, in addition to the more traditional concept of vertical leadership.
TL;DR: This paper examined the effects of transformational and transactional leadership on teachers' job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior in the context of schools in a specific developing country context, that of Tanzania.
Abstract: This article examines the effects of transformational and transactional leadership on teachers' job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior in the context of schools in a specific developing country context, that of Tanzania. It does so by testing a model of such effects using a set of data collected from a sample of Tanzanian primary school teachers. Regression analyses show transformational leadership dimensions to have strong effects on teachers' job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior. Transformational leadership had significant add-on effects to transactional leadership in prediction of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior. Job satisfaction appears to be a mediator of the effects of transformational leadership on teachers' organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, a so-called role model of responsible leadership is proposed, which gives a gestalt to a responsible leader and describes the different roles he or she takes in leading stakeholders and business in society.
Abstract: We understand responsible leadership as a social-relational and ethical phenomenon, which occurs in social processes of interaction. While the prevailing leadership literature has for the most part focussed on the relationship between leaders and followers in the organization and defined followers as subordinates, we show in this article that leadership takes place in interaction with a multitude of followers as stakeholders inside and outside the corporation. Using an ethical lens, we discuss leadership responsibilities in a stakeholder society, thereby following Bass and Steidelmeier’s suggestion to discuss “leadership in the context of contemporary stakeholder theory” (1999: 200). Moreover, from a relational and stakeholder perspective we approach the questions: What is responsible leadership? What makes a responsible leader? What qualities are needed? Finally, we propose a so-called “roles model” of responsible leadership, which gives a gestalt to a responsible leader and describes the different roles he or she takes in leading stakeholders and business in society.
TL;DR: Transformational leadership, initiating structure, and selected substitutes for leadership were studied as longitudinal predictors of performance in 118 research and development project teams from 5 firms and found whereby transformational leadership was a stronger predictor of technical quality in research projects, whereas initiating structure was a weaker predictor ofTechnical quality in development projects.
Abstract: Transformational leadership, initiating structure, and selected substitutes for leadership were studied as longitudinal predictors of performance in 118 research and development (R&D) project teams from 5 firms. As hypothesized, transformational leadership predicted 1-year-later technical quality, schedule performance, and cost performance and 5-year-later profitability and speed to market. Initiating structure predicted all the performance measures. The substitutes of subordinate ability and an intrinsically satisfying task each predicted technical quality and profitability, and ability predicted speed to market. Moderator effects for type of R&D work were hypothesized and found whereby transformational leadership was a stronger predictor of technical quality in research projects, whereas initiating structure was a stronger predictor of technical quality in development projects. Implications for leadership theory and research are discussed.
TL;DR: The authors examined the mediating effects of teacher efficacy by comparing two models derived from Bandura's social-cognitive theory, and found that transformational leadership would contribute to teacher commitment to organizational values exclusively through collective teacher efficacy.
Abstract: Transformational leadership researchers have given little attention to teacher expectations that mediate between goals and actions. The most important of these expectations, teacher efficacy, refers to teacher beliefs that they will be able to bring about student learning. This study examined the mediating effects of teacher efficacy by comparing two models derived from Bandura's social-cognitive theory. Model A hypothesized that transformational leadership would contribute to teacher commitment to organizational values exclusively through collective teacher efficacy. Model B hypothesized that leadership would have direct effects on teacher commitment and indirect effects through teacher efficacy. Data from 3,074 teachers in 218 elementary schools in a cross-validation sample design provided greater support for Model B than Model A. Transformational leadership had an impact on the collective teacher efficacy of the school; teacher efficacy alone predicted teacher commitment to community partnerships; and ...
TL;DR: Mental health service organizations may benefit from improving transformational and transactional supervisory leadership skills in preparation for implementing evidence-based practices.
Abstract: Objective: Leadership in organizations is important in shaping workers’ perceptions, responses to organizational change, and acceptance of innovations, such as evidence-based practices. Transformational leadership inspires and motivates followers, whereas transactional leadership is based more on reinforcement and exchanges. Studies have shown that in youth and family service organizations, mental health providers’ attitudes toward adopting an evidence-based practice are associated with organizational context and individual provider differences. The purpose of this study was to expand these findings by examining the association between leadership and mental health providers’ attitudes toward adopting evidence-based practice. Methods: Participants were 303 public-sector mental health service clinicians and case managers from 49 programs who were providing mental health services to children, adolescents, and their families. Data were gathered on providers’ characteristics, attitudes toward evidence-based practices, and perceptions of their supervisors’ leadership behaviors. Zero-order correlations and multilevel regression analyses were conducted that controlled for effects of service providers’ characteristics. Results: Both transformational and transactional leadership were positively associated with providers’ having more positive attitudes toward adoption of evidence-based practice, and transformational leadership was negatively associated with providers’ perception of difference between the providers’ current practice and evidence-based practice. Conclusions: Mental health service organizations may benefit from improving transformational and transactional supervisory leadership skills in preparation for implementing evidence-based practices. (Psychiatric Services 57:1162–1169, 2006)
TL;DR: In this paper, a stage-based model of leadership identity development (LID) is described, based on a grounded theory study on developing a leadership identity (Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, & Osteen, 2005).
Abstract: This article describes a stage-based model of leadership identity development (LID) that resulted from a grounded theory study on developing a leadership identity (Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, & Osteen, 2005). The LID model expands on the leadership identity stages, integrates the categories of the grounded theory into the LID model, and develops how the categories of the theory change across stages of the model. The model has implications for working with individuals as they develop their leadership identity and for facilitating groups as they develop empowering environments for shared leadership. Connections to related scholarship and stage-based implications for practice are explored.
01 Jan 2006
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that to be truly transformational leadership, it must be grounded in moral foundations, and the moral character of the leaders and their concerns for self and others.
Abstract: The morality of transformational leadership has been sharply questioned, particularly by libertarians, "grass roots" theorists, and organizational development consultants. This paper argues that to be truly transformational leadership, it must be grounded in moral foundations. The four components of authentic transformational leadership (idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration) are constrasted with their counterfeits in the dissembling pseudotransformational leadership on the basis of 1) the moral character of the leaders and their concerns for self and others; 2) the ethical values embedded in the leaders’ vision, articulation, and program, which followers can embrace or reject; and 3) the morality of the processes of social ethical choices and action in which the leaders and followers engage and collectively pursue. The literature on transformational leadership is linked to the long-standing literature on virtue and moral character, as exemplified by Socratic and Confucian typologies. It is linked, as well, to the major themes of the modern Western ethical agenda: liberty, utility and distributive justice Deception, sophistry, and pretense are examined alongside issues of transendence, agency, trust, striving for the congruence of the values, cooperative action, power, persuasion, and corporate governance to establish the strategic and moral foundations of authentic transformational leadership.
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of when, why, and how the influence of entrepreneur leadership behavior on new venture performance is likely to be moderated by the level of environmental dynamism.
TL;DR: It is shown that both transformational and passive leadership have opposite effects on safety climate and safety consciousness, and these variables, in turn, predict safety events and injuries.
Abstract: The authors concurrently examined the impact of safety-specific transformational leadership and safety-specific passive leadership on safety outcomes. First, the authors demonstrated via confirmatory factor analysis that safety-specific transformational leadership and safety-specific passive leadership are empirically distinct constructs. Second, using hierarchical regression, the authors illustrated, contrary to a stated corollary of transformational leadership theory (B. M. Bass, 1997), that passive leadership contributes incrementally to the prediction of organizationally relevant outcomes, in this case safety-related variables, beyond transformational leadership alone. Third, further analyses via structural equation modeling showed that both transformational and passive leadership have opposite effects on safety climate and safety consciousness, and these variables, in turn, predict safety events and injuries. Implications for research and application are discussed.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: This article reviewed the conceptual and empirical development of transformational leadership as it evolved through the work of James MacGregor Burns, Bernard M. Bass, Bruce J. Avolio, and Kenneth Leithwood.
Abstract: Over the past four decades, the concept of leadership has become increasingly more complex and elaborate. Considerable debate has emerged over the most suitable model for educational leadership. Dominating the literature are two conceptual models: instructional leadership and transformational leadership. This paper will review the conceptual and empirical development of transformational leadership as it evolved through the work of James MacGregor Burns, Bernard M. Bass, Bruce J. Avolio, and Kenneth Leithwood. Moreover, the paper will discuss some of the conflicting opinions and diverging perspectives from many of the critics of transformational leadership. The author argues that transformational leadership will continue to evolve in order to adequately respond to the changing needs of schools in the context of educational accountability and school reform.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational cultural orientations, as well as the joint effect of Transformational Leadership and organizational culture on business unit performance.
Abstract: Purpose – The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational cultural orientations, as well as the joint effect of transformational leadership and organizational culture on business unit performance.Design/methodology/approach – About 300 employees of a large financial organization in Greece filled in a number of questionnaires measuring organizational culture orientations and transformational leadership. The measurement of business unit performance was obtained by the organization under study.Findings – A path analysis showed that the achievement and adaptive cultural orientations had a direct effect on performance. Moreover, transformational leadership and humanistic orientation had an indirect positive impact on performance via achievement orientation.Research limitations/implications – A research limitation is that the causal direction of the relations between the predictors and the criteria has been partially established by controlling for the ...
TL;DR: The paper considers OI and OL jointly to promote organizational entrepreneurship and to increase competitive advantages and empirically reflects the need to strengthen different strategic capabilities to achieve an adequate level of both organizational issues and thus improve performance.
Abstract: Purpose – To analyze a series of strategic capabilities/factors that affects organizational innovation (OI) and organizational learning (OL) (personal mastery, transformational leadership, shared vision, proactivity and environment) and demonstrate that OL and innovation are positively related to organizational performance.Design/methodology/approach – Based on prior research, the paper develops a number of testable hypotheses. It examines how personal mastery, transformational leadership, shared vision, proactivity and environment influence improvements in performance. The paper uses inter‐factor correlations matrix and multiple regressions analyses and empirically tests these hypotheses using a sample of 408 Spanish organizations.Findings – Considers OI and OL jointly to promote organizational entrepreneurship and to increase competitive advantages. Empirically reflects the need to strengthen different strategic capabilities to achieve an adequate level of both organizational issues and thus improve per...
TL;DR: The present results showed that the emotional intelligence of the leaders shared significant variance with self-perceptions and rater-perception of transformational leadership, which somewhat support the predictive value of emotional intelligence in antecedent leadership field research.
Abstract: Participants were 80 elected public officials in the United States and 3-6 direct-report staffers for each leader. Together they composed 388 leader-member dyads. The authors surveyed them to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. The authors considered the 80 officials as leaders and the staffers as members. The present results showed that the emotional intelligence of the leaders shared significant variance with self-perceptions and rater-perceptions of transformational leadership. The present results also somewhat support the predictive value of emotional intelligence in antecedent leadership field research.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors tested a model hypothesizing that principals contribute to student achievement indirectly through teacher commitment and beliefs about their collective capacity, and found that schools with higher levels of transformational leadership had higher collective teacher efficacy, greater teacher commitment to school mission, school community, and school community partnerships, and higher student achievement.
Abstract: Principals are held accountable for student achievement although most studies find that they have no direct effect on it. In this study we tested a model hypothesizing that principals contribute to student achievement indirectly through teacher commitment and beliefs about their collective capacity. Path analysis of data from 205 elementary schools supported this hypothesis. Schools with higher levels of transformational leadership had higher collective teacher efficacy, greater teacher commitment to school mission, school community, and school ‐ community partnerships, and higher student achievement. Increasing the transformational leadership practices in schools makes a small but practically important contribution to overall student achievement. Key words: teacher efficacy, transformational leadership, path analysis, grade 3 and 6 Les directions d’ecoles sont imputables au regard du rendement scolaire sur lequel elles n’ont aucun effet direct d’apres la plupart des etudes. Les auteurs ont teste un modele selon lequel la direction d’ecole contribuerait indirectement au rendement scolaire a travers l’implication des enseignants et leurs facons de percevoir leur capacite collective. L’analyse acheminatoire (path analysis) de donnees issues de 205 ecoles primaires vient etayer cette hypothese. Les ecoles presentant un niveau plus eleve de leadership transformationnel se distinguaient par une plus grande efficacite du corps enseignant, une implication plus grande des enseignants vis ‐ a ‐ vis de la mission de l’ecole, de l’equipe ‐ ecole, des partenariats ecole ‐ communaute et un meilleur rendement scolaire. L’amelioration d’un ecart ‐ type des methodes propres au leadership transformationnel dans les ecoles augmenterait le rendement scolaire en lecture, en ecriture et en mathematiques en 3 e et en 6 e annees de 0,22 d’un ecart type. Mots cles : efficacite des enseignants, leadership transformationnel, analyse acheminatoire, 3 e et 6 e annees
TL;DR: Leaders may encourage safety participation using a combination of influence tactics, based on rational arguments, involvement in decision making, and generating enthusiasm for safety, which may be particularly suited to high-reliability organizations.
Abstract: This study examines the effect of leader influence tactics on employee safety participation in a U.K.-based manufacturing organization, examining the role of safety climate as a mediator. Structural equation modeling showed that leader influence tactics associated with a transformational leadership style had significant relationships with safety participation that were partially mediated by the safety climate (consultation) or fully mediated by the safety climate (inspirational appeals). In addition, leader influence tactics associated with a transactional leadership style had significant relationships with safety participation: rational persuasion (partially mediated by safety climate) and coalition tactics (direct effect). Thus, leaders may encourage safety participation using a combination of influence tactics, based on rational arguments, involvement in decision making, and generating enthusiasm for safety. The influence of building trust in managers is discussed as an underlying mechanism in this relationship. Practical implications are highlighted, including the design of leadership development programs, which may be particularly suited to high-reliability organizations.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe the FRL model and show how the transformational leadership styles identified within the model are highly correlated with leader performance, and outline how the model, and the associated multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ), can be used successfully in training/development interventions in organizations.
Abstract: Purpose – To explain and illustrate the innovative full range leadership (FRL) model from Bass and Avolio and to demonstrate how this model can be utilized within organizations to develop transformational leadership.Design/methodology/approach – This paper describes in detail the FRL model and shows how the transformational leadership styles identified within the model are highly correlated with leader performance. Drawing on extensive personal consulting experience, the paper then outlines how the model, and the associated multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ), can be used successfully in training/development interventions in organizations.Findings – The FRL model is probably the most research and validated leadership model in use world‐wide today. The transformational styles described by the model are highly correlated with leadership success. Transformational leadership can be successfully taught by a development process which utilizes a combination of 360 degree feedback using the MLQ, structured...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors proposed a theoretical model to identify conditions under which charismatic leadership and values inadvertently give rise to employee disenchantment, despite the good intentions of leaders and followers.
Abstract: Theory on charismatic leaders suggests that shared values play an important role in promoting employee effort and organizational performance. This article proposes a theoretical model to identify conditions under which charismatic leadership and values inadvertently give rise to employee disenchantment, despite the good intentions of leaders and followers. The model integrates findings from a qualitative longitudinal study of a small advertising firm with prior research to develop new theory on unintended negative consequences of charismatic leadership. We propose that employee sensemaking triggered by strong organizational values can increase the risk of attributions of leader hypocrisy, which lead to employee disenchantment in a process we call the hypocrisy attribution dynamic. Value expansion, organizational tenure, and perceived benefit/harm are proposed to moderate the hypocrisy attribution dynamic, influencing the chances of negative sensemaking about leaders’ behavior. This research sheds light on mechanisms through which charismatic leadership and values achieve their effects, and suggests that value expansion may be a double-edged sword—heightening followers’ experience of meaning at work but also increasing the risk of subsequent disenchantment.
TL;DR: In this article, Transformational Leadership, Job Characteristics, and Organizational Citizenship Performance: Vol. 19, No. 1, 2007, pp. 1-22, were discussed.
Abstract: (2006). Transformational Leadership, Job Characteristics, and Organizational Citizenship Performance. Human Performance: Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 1-22.