Showing papers on "Transformational leadership published in 2009"
TL;DR: This paper examined the relationship between employee creativity and job performance and identified two learning-related personal and situational variables (employee learning orientation and situational factors) and found that they are related to job performance.
Abstract: We examined the relationship between employee creativity and job performance. Furthermore, we identified two learning-related personal and situational variables—employee learning orientation and tr...
1,430 citations
Book•
25 Aug 2009
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on the different patterns of leadership behavior that managers can choose from in relating to their subordinates and present the continuum or range of possible leadership behavior available to managers.
Abstract: This chapter focuses on the different patterns of leadership behavior that managers can choose from in relating to their subordinates. Exhibit I presents the continuum or range of possible leadership behavior available to managers. Each type of action is related to the degree of authority used by the boss and to the amount of freedom available to subordinates in reaching decisions. The manager's behavior in any given instance will be influenced greatly by the many forces operating within his or her own personality. Managers will, of course, perceive their leadership problems in a unique way on the basis of their background, knowledge, and experience. Before deciding how to lead a certain group, managers will also want to consider a number of forces affecting their subordinates' behavior. They will want to remember that each employee, like themselves, is influenced by many personality variables.
1,192 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors proposed a model of the impact of transformational leadership both on followers' creativity at the individual level and on innovation at the organizational level, and tested on 163 R&D personnel and managers at 43 micro-and small-sized Turkish software development companies.
985 citations
TL;DR: This paper found that individual follower's "power distance" orientation and their group's shared perceptions of tra... using 560 followers and 174 leaders in the People's Republic of China and United States.
Abstract: Using 560 followers and 174 leaders in the People's Republic of China and United States, we found that individual follower's “power distance” orientation and their group's shared perceptions of tra...
846 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a conceptual model that considers the source of leader traits, mediators and moderators of their effects on leader emergence and leadership effectiveness, and distinguish between perceived and actual leadership effectiveness is presented.
Abstract: The leader trait perspective is perhaps the most venerable intellectual tradition in leadership research. Despite its early prominence in leadership research, it quickly fell out of favor among leadership scholars. Thus, despite recent empirical support for the perspective, conceptual work in the area lags behind other theoretical perspectives. Accordingly, the present review attempts to place the leader trait perspective in the context of supporting intellectual traditions, including evolutionary psychology and behavioral genetics. We present a conceptual model that considers the source of leader traits, mediators and moderators of their effects on leader emergence and leadership effectiveness, and distinguish between perceived and actual leadership effectiveness. We consider both the positive and negative effects of specific “bright side” personality traits: the Big Five traits, core self-evaluations, intelligence, and charisma. We also consider the positive and negative effects of “dark side” leader traits: Narcissism, hubris, dominance, and Machiavellianism.
795 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a field study with 230 employees of a government agency in the Netherlands combining multisource ratings was conducted, and it was shown that transformational leadership is positively related to innovative behavior only when psychological empowerment is high, whereas transactional leadership has a negative relationship with innovative behavior.
Abstract: Innovative behavior is increasingly important for organizations' survival. Transformational leadership, in contrast to transactional leadership, has been argued to be particularly effective in engendering follower innovative behavior. However, empirical evidence for this relationship is scarce and inconsistent. Addressing this issue, we propose that follower psychological empowerment moderates the relationship of transformational and transactional leadership with follower innovative behavior. In a field study with 230 employees of a government agency in the Netherlands combining multisource ratings, we show that transformational leadership is positively related to innovative behavior only when psychological empowerment is high, whereas transactional leadership has a negative relationship with innovative behavior only under these conditions. Copyright (C) 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
761 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the role of strategic leaders in managing exploration and exploitation, and reveal how the impact of leadership is contingent upon dynamic environmental conditions and argue that environmental dynamism needs to be taken into account to fully understand the effectiveness of leaders.
Abstract: This study advances prior theoretical research by linking transformational and transactional behaviors of strategic leaders to two critical outputs of organizational learning: exploratory and exploitative innovation. Findings indicate that transformational leadership behaviors contribute significantly to adopting generative thinking and pursuing exploratory innovation. Transactional leadership behaviors, on the other hand, facilitate improving and extending existing knowledge and are associated with exploitative innovation. In addition, we argue that environmental dynamism needs to be taken into account to fully understand the effectiveness of strategic leaders. Our study provides new insights that misfits rather than fits between leadership behaviors and innovative outcomes matter in dynamic environments. Hence, we contribute to the debate on the role of strategic leaders in managing exploration and exploitation, not only by examining how specific leadership behaviors impact innovative outcomes, but also by revealing how the impact of leadership is contingent upon dynamic environmental conditions.
742 citations
01 Jan 2009
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors proposed a direct credit method for direct credit payment with the name on this order form as a reference to be used as the reference for the order form.
Abstract: Email Payment Details Payment must be received with your order Total amount $ To be paid by: Direct Credit (Please quote Project 13406.90 and the name on this order form as a reference) Bank: ANZ National Bank Limited, Wellington Swift address: ANZBNZ22XXX For account: Auckland UniServices Limited Account number: 06-0158-0081592-00 OR: Cheque (Payable to Auckland UniServices Ltd) OR: Please charge my Visa Mastercard
602 citations
DOI•
07 May 2009
TL;DR: For example, the authors proposes to consider the history of the subject and the object in one's knowing as a way of grounding the subject in the learning process and to recognize the importance of prior transformations in a learning past.
Abstract: Constructive-developmental theory invites those with an interest in transformational learning to consider that a form of knowing always consists of a relationship or temporary equilibrium between the subject and the object in one's knowing. Transformational kinds of learning need to be more clearly distinguished from informational kinds of learning, and each needs to be recognized as valuable in any learning activity, discipline, or field. As all good teachers know, every student comes with a "learning past" that is an important part of his or her present and future learning. Important features of this past – for adult learners especially, and their teachers – include the history of their relationship to the subject at hand and the history of their personal disposition toward the enterprise of learning itself. But for the adult educator with an interest in supporting transformative learning, an important and often overlooked feature of their students' learning pasts is their history of prior transformations.
583 citations
01 Jan 2009
TL;DR: This study suggests that transformational leadership can foster the utilization of the potential, but frequently untapped, benefits entailed by both demographic and informational/cognitive team diversity.
Abstract: In a sample of 62 research and development (R&D) teams, the authors examined transformational leadership as a moderator of the relationship of age, nationality, and educational background diversity with team outcomes. When levels of transformational leadership were high, nationality and educational diversity were positively related to team leaders' longitudinal ratings of team performance. These relationships were nonsignificant when transformational leadership was low. Age diversity was not related to team performance when transformational leadership was high, and it was negatively related to team performance when transformational leadership was low. Two mediated moderation effects help explain these findings. Transformational leadership moderated the relationship of the 3 examined diversity dimensions with the elaboration of task-relevant information, which in turn was positively associated with team performance. Moreover, transformational leadership moderated the relationship of the 3 diversity types with collective team identification, which in turn was positively related to the elaboration of task-relevant information. The authors discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these results. Overall, this study suggests that transformational leadership can foster the utilization of the potential, but frequently untapped, benefits entailed by both demographic and informational/cognitive team diversity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved).
556 citations
TL;DR: Examination of the relationships between chief executive officer (CEO) personality, transformational and transactional leadership, and multiple strategic outcomes in a sample of 75 CEOs of Major League Baseball organizations over a 100-year period found CEO bright-side personality characteristics (core self-evaluations) were positively related to transformational leadership, whereas dark-side Personality characteristics of CEOs were negatively related to contingent reward leadership.
Abstract: This article reports on an examination of the relationships between chief executive officer (CEO) personality, transformational and transactional leadership, and multiple strategic outcomes in a sample of 75 CEOs of Major League Baseball organizations over a 100-year period. CEO bright-side personality characteristics (core self-evaluations) were positively related to transformational leadership, whereas dark-side personality characteristics (narcissism) of CEOs were negatively related to contingent reward leadership. In turn, CEO transformational and contingent reward leadership were related to 4 different strategic outcomes, including manager turnover, team winning percentage, fan attendance, and an independent rating of influence. CEO transformational leadership was positively related to ratings of influence, team winning percentage, and fan attendance, whereas contingent reward leadership was negatively related to manager turnover and ratings of influence.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine the mechanisms by which brand-specific transactional and transformational leaders influence employees' brand-building behavior. And they show that both processes are mediated by employees' perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness with regard to their work roles as brand representatives.
Abstract: This article reports two studies on how managers can elicit brand-building behavior from frontline employees. Study 1 examines the mechanisms by which brand-specific transactional and transformational leadership influence employees' brand-building behavior. The results from a survey of 269 customer-contact employees show that brand-specific transactional leaders influence followers through a process of compliance, leading to an increase in turnover intentions and a decrease in in-role and extra-role brand-building behaviors. In contrast, brand-specific transformational leaders influence followers through a process of internalization, leading to a decrease in turnover intentions and an increase in in-role and extra-role brand-building behaviors. In turn, both processes are mediated by employees' perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness with regard to their work roles as brand representatives. Moreover, the results show that brand-specific transactional leadership moderates the influenc...
TL;DR: In this paper, an empirical investigation of ethical leadership in Singapore's construction industry is reported and it is found that ethical leadership is positively and significantly associated with transformational leadership, transformational culture of organization, contingent reward dimension of transactional leadership, leader effectiveness, leader willingness to put in extra effort, and employee satisfaction with the leader.
Abstract: Leadership which lacks ethical conduct can be dangerous, destructive, and even toxic. Ethical leadership, though well discussed in the literature, has been tested empirically as a construct in very few studies. An empirical investigation of ethical leadership in Singapore’s construction industry is reported. It is found that ethical leadership is positively and significantly associated with transformational leadership, transformational culture of organization, contingent reward dimension of transactional leadership, leader effectiveness, employee willingness to put in extra effort, and employee satisfaction with the leader. However, it is also found that ethical leadership bears no correlations with transactional leadership. Also, it is negatively correlated with laissez-faire leadership and transactional culture of the organization. The findings also reveal that ethical leadership plays a mediating role in the relationship between employee outcomes and organizational culture. Practical implications of these findings are discussed. Directions for future research are also suggested.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined whether follower characteristics moderate the relationship between transformational leadership and follower work engagement, and found that followers with higher follower characteristics were more likely to follow transformational leaders.
Abstract: This study examines whether follower characteristics moderate the relationship between transformational leadership and follower work engagement. Data were collected from 140 followers and their 48 ...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined transformational leadership in the context of traditional teams using face-to-face communication and virtual teams using computer-mediated communication and found that the most effective leaders where those who increased their transformational behavior in virtual teams.
Abstract: This experimental study examined transformational leadership in the context of traditional teams using face-to-face communication and virtual teams using computer-mediated communication. Thirty-nine leaders led both face-to-face and virtual teams. Repeated-measures analyses revealed similar mean levels of transformational leadership in both team types; however, leader rank order varied across team type. Post hoc analyses revealed that the most effective leaders where those who increased their transformational leadership in virtual teams. Furthermore, analyses at the team level revealed that the effect of transformational leadership on team performance was stronger in virtual than in face-to-face teams. Team-member ratings of transformational leadership were equally linked to project satisfaction in face-to-face and virtual teams. Considered as a whole, our results suggest that transformational leadership has a stronger effect in teams that use only computer-mediated communication, and that leaders who increase their transformational leadership behaviors in such teams achieve higher levels of team performance.
08 Apr 2009-Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences-revue Canadienne Des Sciences De L Administration
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that transformational and transactional leadership behaviours are judged to be ethical based on two different sets of values, motives, and assumptions, which are grounded in two types of ethical perspective.
Abstract: Ethical leadership literature (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Kanungo & Mendonca, 1996) suggests that authentic transformational leadership must be based on some moral foundation. Such literature is not as clear, however, on whether transactional leadership can have moral foundation as well. The paper argues that transformational and transactional leadership behaviours are judged to be ethical based on two different sets of values, motives, and assumptions. These values, motives, and assumptions are grounded in two types of ethical perspective for understanding the behaviour of the two types of leaders. Transformational leaders have an organic worldview and moral altruistic motives grounded in a deontological perspective. Transactional leaders, on the other hand, have an atomistic worldview and mutual altruistic motives grounded in a teleological perspective.
Resume
La litterature sur le leadership ethique (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Kanungo & Mendonca, 1996) suggere que le leadership transformationnel authentique doit etre base sur des fondements moraux quelconques. Par con-tre, la litterature ne precise pas si le leadership trans-actionnel doit aussi avoir des fondements moraux. Cette etude demontre que les comportements de leadership transformationnels ainsi que transactionnels sont juges comme etant bases sur deux differents groupes de valeurs, motifs et suppositions en ce qui attrait a l'ethique. Ces valeurs, motifs et suppositions sont fondes sur deux types de perspectives ethiques defacon a com-prendre le comportement des deux types de leaders. Les leaders transformationnels out une perception orga-nique du monde ainsi que des motifs moraux altruistes bases sur une perspective deontologique. A l'oppose, les leaders transactionnels ont une perception atomiste du monde et des motifs mutuels bases sur une perspective teleologique.
TL;DR: This paper developed and tested a conceptual model of followers' perceptions of transformational leadership as an antecedent to their positive psychological capital, a higher-order construct that represents an individual's motivational propensity and perseverance toward goals.
Abstract: This article develops and tests a conceptual model of followers' perceptions of transformational leadership as an antecedent to their positive psychological capital—a higher-order construct that represents an individual's motivational propensity and perseverance toward goals. Positive psychological capital, in turn, has in-role performance and organizational citizenship behavior as consequences. Structural equation modeling results support the relationship between followers' perceptions of transformational leadership and positive psychological capital, as well as the relationship between positive psychological capital and each performance outcome. Implications of these results are discussed regarding the literatures of transformational leadership and positive organizational behavior.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the relationship among positive psychological traits (hope, optimism, resiliency), transformational leadership, and firm performance in high-technology start-up and established firm contexts, using structural equation modeling.
TL;DR: Self-efficacy was found to fully mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and well-being and team efficacy was found be found to partially mediated the relationshipBetween transformational Leadership and job satisfaction and fully mediates the relationship Between transformationalleadership andWell-being.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors propose that collective leadership is a function of selectively utilizing the information or specialized expertise that individuals within the network possess, and that the shifting of leadership responsibilities is often rooted in which individual's expertise is most relevant to the given problem.
Abstract: To date, the dominant approach to leadership research assumes that all aspects of the leadership role within a team are embodied by a single individual. In the real world, however, this is rarely the case. Rather, multiple individuals within the team may serve as leaders in both formal and informal capacities, and the shifting of leadership responsibilities is often rooted in which individual's expertise is most relevant to the given problem. In the present effort, we add to the rapidly growing body of work that focuses on the distribution of the leadership role among multiple individuals. We have reviewed relevant extant literature and proposed an integrated framework for understanding the collective leadership process. Also, in developing this framework we have taken an information and expertise-based approach such that we propose that collective leadership, or the distribution of the leadership role, is a function of selectively utilizing the information or specialized expertise that individuals within the network possess. In reviewing the framework, 55 propositions with regard to the collective leadership process are outlined and suggestions for future research are provided.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of leadership training on employee perceptions of leader safety-specific transformational leadership, safety climate, safety participation, safety compliance, safety-related events and, injuries were assessed using a pre-test, post-test and control group design.
Abstract: Transformational leadership based interventions were assessed using a pre-test, post-test, and control group design. Leaders (N=54) from 21 long-term health care organizations were randomly assigned to general transformational leadership training, safety-specific transformational leadership training, or a control group. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed that leadership training resulted in significant effects on manager post-training ratings of safety attitudes, intent to promote safety, and self-efficacy. The effects of leadership training on employee (N=115) perceptions of leader safety-specific transformational leadership, safety climate, safety participation, safety compliance, safety-related events and, injuries were also assessed. Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), with the pre-test scores as the covariates, showed that leadership training resulted in significant effects on the safety-specific transformational leadership and safety climate outcomes.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the impact of transformational leadership on organizational innovation and to determine whether internal and external support for innovation as contextual conditions influence this effect, and they found that the relationship between transformational leaders and organizational innovation was stronger when external support was at high levels than when there was no external support.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used a social identity analysis to predict employee creativity and found that leader inspirational motivation and leader team prototypicality would moderate the relationship between identification and creative effort.
Abstract: Summary This research uses a social identity analysis to predict employee creativity. We hypothesized that team identification leads to greater employee creative performance, mediated by the individual’s creative effort. We hypothesized that leader inspirational motivation as well as leader team prototypicality would moderate the relationship between identification and creative effort. Consistent with these predictions, data based on 115 matched pairs of employee-leader ratings in a research and development context showed an indirect relationship between team identification and creative performance mediated by creative effort. The analyses also confirmed the expectedmoderated relationships. Leader inspirational motivation enhanced the positive association between identification and creative effort, especially when leader prototypicality was high. We discuss the value of social identity analyses of employee creativity and of the integration of social identity and transformational leadership analyses. Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The authors explored the role of transformational leadership and the values incorporated in a learning culture in promoting ambidexterity (the ability to explore new capabilities while exploiting existing ones) in teams involved in acquisition integrations.
Abstract: This study explores the role of transformational leadership and the values incorporated in a learning culture in promoting ambidexterity (the ability to explore new capabilities while exploiting existing ones) in teams involved in acquisition integrations. Data from a field study of an acquisition integration ( N = 71 work teams) support hypotheses arguing that transformational leadership behaviors and the development of a learning culture, characterized by psychological safety, openness to diverse opinions, and participation in decision making, promote ambidexterity at the team level. We also found support for the association between transformational leadership and learning cultures.
08 Apr 2009-Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences-revue Canadienne Des Sciences De L Administration
TL;DR: In this article, a model of ethical leadership is proposed which relates the dimensions of these styles to the level of the leader's moral development, which is related to teleological ethics and ethical egoism.
Abstract: This paper reviews two major ethical theories and the manner in which the values they espouse are associated with the directive, transactional, and transformational leadership styles A model of ethical leadership is proposed which relates the dimensions of these styles to the level of the leader's moral development Transformational leadership appears to be most closely connected to deontology, while transactional leadership would seem to be related more to teleological ethics, and directive leadership to ethical egoism, a category of teleology The paper concludes with some suggestions for future research
Resume
Cette etude passe en revue deux theories principales d'ethiques et la facon dont les valeurs qu'elles compren-nent sont liees aux styles de leadership directif, transac-tionnel, et transformationnel L'auteur presente un mo-dele de leadership ethique dans lequel les dimensions de ces styles sont associees au niveau de developpement moral du leader Le leadership transformationnel semble etre lie plus etroitement a la deontologie tandis que le leadership transactionnel serait associe plutot a l'ethique teleologique et le leadership directif a l'ego-isnie ethique, une categorie de la teleologie L'etude se termine par quelques suggestions de recherches ulterieures
TL;DR: The positive relationship between inspirational leadership and individuals' commitment to the team and trust in team members was strengthened in teams that were more dispersed suggesting that inspirational leaders are important in all contexts but that their importance is underscored in highly dispersed contexts.
Abstract: A rich body of research in the area of leadership has examined the influence of transformational/charismatic forms of leadership on employees' motivation, attitudes, and behaviors. This research is based on the assumption that leaders are able to influence followers based on close, sustained, and personalized contact with them. However, new organizational realities are challenging this assumption. Drawing on the intersections between social identity theory and leadership research, this study highlights the importance of inspirational leaders who, by developing socialized relationships with team members, can foster attitudes that are critical for team effectiveness in geographically dispersed settings. Findings support the role of this form of leadership in dispersed settings. Inspirational leadership emerged as a significant predictor of individuals' trust in team members and commitment to the team. Further, the positive relationship between inspirational leadership and individuals' commitment to the team and trust in team members was strengthened in teams that were more dispersed suggesting that inspirational leaders are important in all contexts but that their importance is underscored in highly dispersed contexts. Finally, shared perceptions of trust and commitment predicted performance at the team level.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine the role that individual unit management plays in this process by looking at how a manager's commitment to service quality and that person's leadership style affect the way frontline employees do their job.
Abstract: One of the continuing challenges in the hotel industry is providing consistent levels of quality service across units. Although recruitment, selection, and training practices are often standardized across units (within a given market), frontline employees' performance varies. This study examines the role that individual unit management plays in this process by looking at how a manager's commitment to service quality and that person's leadership style affect the way frontline employees do their job. The fundamental implication of this study is that managers who are committed to service quality and employ an empowering leadership style can create a transformational climate that conveys their commitment to quality service to their frontline employees. This leads to employees who are more likely to share the organization's values, who understand their role in the organization, who are more satisfied with their jobs, and who perform at a higher level of quality in serving hotel guests.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explored the construct validity of a Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and its relationship with team cohesion and performance level and found that the leadership behaviors of fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting team work, high performance expectations, and individual consideration significantly predicted task cohesion.
Abstract: The present study explored the construct validity of a Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and its relationship with team cohesion and performance level. Three hundred and nine club standard ultimate Frisbee players in the United Kingdom (mean age = 24.30 years, SD = 3.90) completed an adapted version of Hardy, Arthur, Jones, Shariff, Munnoch, Isaacs, and Allsopp et al.'s (in press) Differentiated Transformational Leadership Inventory and the Group Environment Questionnaire (Carron, Widmeyer, & Brawley, 1985). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed evidence for the factorial and discriminant validity of the leadership inventory. Furthermore, results demonstrated that the leadership behaviors of fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting team work, high performance expectations, and individual consideration significantly predicted task cohesion; and fostering acceptance of group goals and promoting teamwork significantly predicted social cohesion. Performance level moderated these re...
Book•
09 Jun 2009
TL;DR: The Social Change Model of Leadership Development (SCLM) as discussed by the authors is a model of change in the leadership development process that is based on the social change model of social change.
Abstract: Preface. About the Authors and Editors. PART 1: SOCIAL CHANGE AND THE SOCIAL CHANGE MODEL OF LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT. 1. What Is Social Change (Wendy Wagner)? 2. An Overview of the Social Change Model of Leadership Development (Kristan Cilente). 3. Applying the Social Change Model: A Case Study Approach Jose-Luis Riera). 4. Change (Nurredina Workman). PART 2: SOCIETAL/COMMUNITY VALUES. 5. Citizenship (Jennifer Bonnet). PART 3: GROUP VALUES. 6. Collaboration (Jordan England). 7. Common Purpose (Alex Teh). 8. Controversy with Civility (Cecilio Alvarez). PART 4: INDIVIDUAL VALUES. 9. Consciousness of Self (Justin Fincher). 10. Congruence (Tricia Shalka). 11. Commitment (Ashlee M. Kerkhoff and Daniel T. Ostick). PART 5: CHANGE AGENTS. 12. Becoming a Change Agent (Marybeth J. Drechsler and William A. Jones). Epilogue. Susan R. Komives and Wendy Wagner. Further Readings. Index.
TL;DR: In this article, a multilevel model is proposed that organizational learning is an interdependent system where effective leaders enact intervention strategies at the individual (micro), network (meso), and systems (macro) levels.
Abstract: article i nfo a bstract A multilevel model is offered proposing that organizational learning is an interdependent system where effective leaders enact intervention strategies at the individual (micro), network (meso), and systems (macro) levels. We suggest that leaders approach organizational learning by setting the conditions and structure for learning to occur, while limiting direct interference in the actual creative processes. First, leaders may increase the level of developmental readiness of individual followers, thereby increasing their motivation and ability to approach learning experiences and adapt their mental models. These individuals then serve as catalysts of learning within and between social networks. Second, leaders may promote the diffusion of knowledge between these knowledge catalysts within and across social networks through influencing both the structure and functioning of knowledge networks. Finally, leaders may target actions at the systems level to improve the diffusion to, and institutionalization of, knowledge to the larger organization.