Showing papers on "Triphenyl phosphate published in 2013"

Printing ink compounds in foods: UK survey results

Abstract: Three hundred and fifty foodstuffs packaged in printed paper/board were purchased from UK retail outlets. Solvent extracts of all foods and associated quality assurance samples were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to determine the presence and concentrations of 20 printing ink compounds: benzophenone, 4-methylbenzophenone, 2-methylbenzophenone, 3-methylbenzophenone, 4-hydroxybenzophenone, 2-hydroxybenzophenone, 4-phenylbenzophenone, methyl-2-benzoylbenzoate, 1-hydroxycyclohexyl phenyl ketone, 2-isopropylthioxanthone, 4-isopropylthioxanthone, 2,4-diethyl-9H-thioxanthen-9-one, 2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone, 2-methyl-4'-(methylthio)-2-morpholinopropiophenone, 4-(4-methylphenylthio)benzophenone, ethyl-4-dimethylaminobenzoate, 2-ethylhexyl-4-(dimethylamino)benzoate, N-ethyl-p-toluene-sulphonamide, triphenyl phosphate and di-(2-ethylhexyl) fumarate. The presence of one or more of the compounds benzophenone, 4-phenylbenzophenone, methyl-2-benzoylbenzoate, 1-hydroxycyclohexyl phenyl ketone, 2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone, 4-(4-methylphenylthio)benzophenone, ethyl-4-dimethylaminobenzoate, 2-ethylhexyl-4-dimethylaminobenzoate and triphenyl phosphate was confirmed in some food samples. Analysis of the associated packaging material was also carried out to confirm whether or not it was likely that the occurrence of these compounds in the foods was due to migration from the printed paper/board packaging. With the exception of triphenyl phosphate, detected in one foodstuff, all the packaging material contained the substance(s) found in the food.

Effect of Triphenyl Phosphate Flame Retardant on Properties of Arylamine-Based Polybenzoxazines

Abstract: Three types of arylamine-based benzoxazine resins modified with both condensed-phase and gas-phase action flame re- tardant, i.e. triphenyl phosphate (TPP) at various weight ratios were investigated. From rheological study, it was found that the vis- cosity of benzoxazines/TPP mixtures were significantly lower than that of the neat benzoxazine monomers suggesting flow property enhancement. Furthermore, differential scanning calorimetry results revealed that the onset and the maximum temperatures of the exothermic peak, due to the ring opening polymerization of benzoxazine resins, shifted to lower temperatures with increasing TPP. In addition, all polybenzoxazines possessed relatively high char yield, which increased as the TPP content increased thus enhancing their flame retardancy. The limiting oxygen index values of the flame retarded polybenzoxazines also increased with TPP addition. The maximum flame retardancy of UL94 V-0 class was obtained with an addition of only few percents of TPP in the polybenzoxazines. Flexural strength, flexural modulus, and glass transition temperature of those polybenzoxazines tended to decrease with an addition of TPP mainly due to its plasticizing effect. V C 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 130: 1074-1083, 2013

Reduction of flammability of ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene by using triphenyl phosphate additives

Abstract: The mechanism of reducing the flammability of ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) with triphenyl phosphate (TPP) additives was investigated, using the methods of molecular-beam mass spectrometry (MBMS), differential mass spectrometric thermal analysis (DMSTA), thermocouple, thermogravimetry (TGA), and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Kinetics of thermal degradation of pure UHMWPE and of that mixed with TPP was studied at high (∼150 K/s) and low (0.17 K/s) heating rates at atmospheric pressure. Effective values of the rate constants of the thermal degradation reaction were determined. Times of ignition delay, the limiting oxygen index, the burning rates of UHMWPE and UHMWPE + TPP and their temperature profiles in the flames were measured. The flame structure was investigated and the composition of the combustion products in the flame zone adjacent to the specimen’s combustion surface. TPP vapors in flame were found. Addition of TPP to UHMWPE was found to result in reduction of polymer flammability. TPP was shown to act as flame retardant both in the condensed and gas phases.

Triphenyl phosphite, a new allergen in polyvinylchloride gloves

Abstract: Summary Background. Contact allergy to polyvinylchloride (PVC) gloves has been reported relatively seldom. In spring 2011, 5 of our patients had patch test reactions to PVC gloves. We obtained a collection of PVC raw materials from industrial producers and suppliersofchemicalcompoundstobepatchtestedonpatientswithsuspectedPVCglove contact allergy. Objectives. To report the first results of these new test substances. Methods. The patients were patch tested with the newly obtained test substances, plastics and glues series, and isocyanates and isocyanate prepolymers. We analysed nine PVC glove samples for triphenyl phosphate and its derivatives. Results. TwopatientsreactedtoatechnicalPVCantioxidantandoneofitscomponents, triphenyl phosphite (TPP). Contact allergy to TPP was very strong in 1 patient, and was the main cause of her hand dermatitis, whereas the other patient also had other contact allergiesexplaininghersymptoms.ThreepatientsreactedtotheirPVCgloves,butthespecific allergen was not identified. Six PVC glove samples contained TPP at concentrations of 0.004‐0.099%. TPP transforms into triphenyl phosphate during storage. Conclusions. TPP represents a new allergen in PVC gloves. It was detected in several PVC gloves in fairly high concentrations.

Flame-Retarded High Density Polyethylene with an Intumescent Flame Retardant Synthesized in a Phosphorus-Containing Solvent

Abstract: An intumescent flame retardant (IFR), melamine salt of pentaerythritol phosphate (MPPL) was successfully synthesized in a phosphors-containing solvent, triphenyl phosphate (TPP). This novel method ...

Allergic contact dermatitis caused by triphenyl phosphite in poly(vinyl chloride) gloves.

Abstract: Contact dermatitis caused by vinyl gloves is considered to be very rare, and identification of the allergen can be difficult. Bisphenol A, adipic polyester, mono(2-ethylhexyl) maleate in di-(n-octyl)tin-bis(2-ethylhexylmaleate), benzisothiazolinone and formaldehyde are identified allergens in poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) gloves. Here, a patient with contact dermatitis caused by triphenyl phosphite (TPP) in PVC gloves is presented.

Formula of multifunctional polymethylmethacrylate

Abstract: The invention discloses a formula of multifunctional polymethylmethacrylate. The formula comprises polymethyl methacrylate and additives, wherein the additives include a fire retardant, an antistatic agent, a dispersing agent, a colorant and a coupling agent; the fire retardant is triphenyl phosphate; the antistatic agent is ethyoxyl lauro tyramine; the dispersing agent is triethylhexyl phosphoric acid; the colorant is palm oil acid diester; and the coupling agent is ammonia propyltriethoxysilane. Prepared polymethylmethacrylate has the characteristics of flame retardance, static electricity resistance, good internal dispersity, diversified colors, low production cost and the like.

Effects of nanoclays on the flammability of polystyrene with triphenyl phosphate–based flame retardants

Abstract: The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of nanoclays on the flammability behavior of neat polystyrene and polystyrene compounded with traditional flame retardants triphenyl pho...

Dynamics and Mechanism of Flame Retardants in Polymer Matrixes: Experiment and Simulation

Abstract: We investigate the dynamics and the mechanism of flame retardants in polycarbonate matrixes to explore for a way of designing efficient and environment-friendly flame retardants. The high phosphorus content of organic phosphates has been considered as a requirement for efficient flame retardants. We show, however, that one can enhance the efficiency of flame retardants even with a relatively low phosphorus content by tuning the dynamics and the intermolecular interactions of flame retardants. This would enable one to design bulkier flame retardants that should be less volatile and less harmful in indoor environments. UL94 flammability tests indicate that even though the phosphorus content of 2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl diphenyl phosphate (DDP) is much smaller with two bulky tertiary butyl groups than that of triphenyl phosphate (TPP), DDP should be as efficient of a flame retardant as TPP, which is a widely used flame retardant. On the other hand, the 2-tert-butylphenyl diphenyl phosphate (2-tBuDP), with a lo...

Halogen-free flame retardant nylon resin composition

Abstract: The invention relate to a halogen-free flame-retardant nylon resin composition, which comprises the following components in parts by weight: 58 parts of nylon 66 (PA66), 30 parts of glass fiber (GF), 1 to 10 parts of flame retardant, 1 to 10 parts of toughening agent, 0.1 to 5 parts of flowing agent, and 0.5 to 5 parts of light stabilizer, wherein the glass fiber is a non-alkali short glass fiber, and the flame retardant is at least one of component selected from triphenyl phosphate, triscresyl phosphate, bisphenol-A Bis(diphenyl phosphate) and melamine polyphosphate (MPP). The halogen-free flame-retardant nylon resin composition provided by the invention fully adopts a halogen-free flame retardant as a flame retardant material, but the overall performance achieves the performance index of a nylon resin composition using a halogen flame retardant.

Preparation method of triphenyl phosphate

Abstract: The invention relates to a preparation method of triphenyl phosphate. The preparation method comprises the following steps of: (1), adding a catalyst into molten phenol, putting a mixture into a reaction kettle, stirring the mixture until the temperature is reduced to be below 50 DEG C, stopping stirring and mixing phosphorus oxychloride; (2), performing constant pressure acid drainage and negative pressure acid drainage under a stirring condition to ensure that an acid value is less than or equal to 6mg KOH/g, and neutralizing and exhausting to obtain qualified coarse ester; and (3) raising the temperature of the qualified coarse ester to perform pressure reduction, distillation and separation and collecting a finished product; performing alkali washing and water washing, sampling and analyzing the finished product to ensure that the acid value is less than or equal to 0.05mg KOH/g, dehydrating and purifying, and sampling and analyzing the finished product to ensure that the acid value is less than or equal to 0.05mg KOH/g; and filtering to obtain triphenyl phosphate. The preparation method is easy to operate, mild in condition, short in reaction time, low in energy consumption, low in corrosion, low in pollution, and high in yield, and the product is pure, and the yield is up to more than 88 percent.

Improved glass fiber reinforced PC/ASA composition

Abstract: The invention relates to an improved glass fiber reinforced PC/ASA (Poly Carbonate/Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate) composition, which is characterized by comprising the following components in parts by weight: 60 parts of polycarbonate (PC), 30 parts of alkali-free short glass fibers, 5 parts of acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate (ASA), 1-20 parts of flexibilizer, 1-10 parts of fire retardant and 1-10 parts of flowable agent, wherein the flexibilizer is at least one selected from ethylene-octylene copolymer, ethylene-butene copolymer, ethylene-propylene copolymer and styrene-butadiene copolymer; the fire retardant is at least one selected from triphenyl phosphate, tricresyl phosphate and bisphenol A diphenyl biphosphate; the flowable agent is at least one selected from ethylene bis stearamide (EBS), pentaerythritol stearate (PETS), PE (Poly Ethylene) wax and PP (Poly Propylene) wax. Compared with the prior art, the compositional formulation of the improved glass fiber reinforced PC/ASA composition is simple and requirements for the properties of the product raw materials are low; as a result, the produced composition is easy to control in quality, and simultaneously enhanced in performance indexes such as bending strength, bending modulus and the like.

Methanol gasoline compound additive

Abstract: The invention discloses a methanol gasoline compound additive which comprises the following components in percentage by mass: 35-50% of metal corrosion inhibitor, 5-15% of rubber swelling inhibitor, 1-5% of triphenyl phosphate antiwear lubricant and 30-60% of C1-C5 low carbon alcohol The metal corrosion inhibitor is a mixture composed of benzotriazole and derivatives thereof, and/or triethanolamine, polyoleic acid and organic amine; the rubber swelling inhibitor is dimethyl phthalate and/or propiolic alcohol; and the triphenyl phosphate antiwear lubricant comprises triphenyl phosphate or triphenyl phosphate derivatives, such as isopropylated triphenyl phosphate and the like The methanol gasoline compound additive disclosed by the invention is suitable for M70+ and M5-M30 methanol gasoline, can effectively inhibit the corrosion of high/low-proportion methanol gasoline to engine and metal parts, prevents the swelling effect of the high/low-proportion methanol gasoline on the automobile oil supply system rubber and plastic materials, and achieves the effects of wear resistance and lubrication

PC-ABS alloy for computer housing

Abstract: A PC-ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) alloy for a computer housing is characterized by comprising the following constitutes in parts by weight: 70 parts of PC polycarbonate, 15 parts of ABS copolymer, 1-20 parts of flame retardant, 1-10 parts of stress cracking resisting agent, 1-10 parts of flexibilizer, 0.1-5 parts of flowable agent, wherein the flame retardant is at least one selected from triphenyl phosphate, tricresyl phosphate, bisphenol A diphosphonate cresyl diphenyl phosphate; the stress cracking resisting agent is at least one selected from ethyl- hydrogenised nitrile-acrylate ternary co-polymerized graft, and acrylic acid grafted polyolefin elastomer copolymer; the flexibilizer is at least one selected from ethylene-octane copolymer, ethylene-butane copolymer, ethylene-propene copolymer, and phenethylene-butadiene copolymer. The PC- ABS alloy improves gap impact strength performance and reduces complexity of the operation control.

High-temperature resistant halogen-free flame-retardant cable material and preparation method thereof

Abstract: The invention discloses a high-temperature resistant halogen-free flame-retardant cable material and a preparation method thereof. The cable material comprises the following components by weight percent: 60% to 80% of thermoplastic polyether ester elastomer, 10% to 20% of triphenyl phosphate intercalated montmorillonite, 6% to 15% of novolac epoxy resin, 3% to 15% of nitrogen-containing flame-retardant synergist, 0.1% to 0.5% of antioxidant A and 0.1% to 0.5% of antioxidant B, wherein the antioxidant A is selected from double (2,4-two tertiary butyl phenyl) pentaerythritol phosphate, 4-{3-(3,5-two tertiary butyl-4-hydroxyl phenyl) propionic acid} ntaerythritol alcohol ester or Beta (3,5-two tertiary butyl-4 hydroxyl phenyl) octadecyl propionate; and the antioxidant B is selected from (2,4,6-three tertiary butyl phenyl-2-butyl-2-ethyl)-1,3-propylene glycol phosphite ester, 2,2'-ethylidene double (4,6-two tertiary butyl phenyl) fluoro phosphite ester or 2(2,4-2 pair isopropyl phenyl) pentaerythritol double phosphite ester. The cable material disclosed by the invention is good in mechanical and processing performance, strong in stress cracking resistance and high in high-temperature resisting level.

Halogen-free flame retardant high impact polystyrene and preparation method thereof

Abstract: The invention discloses halogen-free flame retardant high impact polystyrene and a preparation method thereof. The halogen-free flame retardant high impact polystyrene is prepared from the following components in weight part: 100 parts of high impact polystyrene resin, 1-15 parts of vinyl benzene-butadiene-vinyl benzene blocked copolymer, 10-30 parts of halogen-free composite flame retardant, 0.2-2.5 parts of lubricating agent, and 0.3-1.6 parts of stabilizing agent; the halogen-free composite flame retardant is prepared from phosphate ester, zinc borate and phenolic resin in weight ratio of (10-20) to 1 to (5-10); the phosphate ester is triphenyl phosphate or dibenzyl phosphate. The halogen-free flame retardant high impact polystyrene has the advantages of excellent flame retardant property, high comprehensive mechanical strength, good melt flowability, low production cost, excellent environment protection and no toxicity.

Triphenyl phosphate modified cable sheathing compound

Abstract: The invention discloses a triphenyl phosphate modified cable sheathing compound. The compound is prepared from the following raw materials in parts by weight: 70-80 parts of polytetrafluoroethylene, 30-45 parts of PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) resin powder, 1-2.3 parts of silane coupling agent KH580, 0.4-0.6 parts of antioxidant 1135, 1.2-1.8 parts of antioxidant 264, 60-80 parts of coated montmorillonoid, 10-20 parts of nanometer calcium carbonate, 1-2 parts of triphenyl phosphate, 1.5-3 parts of barium stearate, 5-7 parts of high-density polyethylene (HDPE), 6-8 parts of polyethylene wax, 1-2 parts of epoxy oleic acid butyl ester, 8-15 parts of magnesium hydroxide, 1-2 parts of sulphur, 1-2 parts of melamine, 2.3-3.5 parts of triphosphate, 1-2 parts of accelerant DM, 2-4 parts of antimonous oxide, 4-8 parts of magnesium hydroxide and 2-4 parts of antioxidant 168.

Cellulose triacetate membrane

Abstract: The invention discloses a cellulose triacetate membrane which is prepared from a solution containing cellulose triacetate, a solvent and a plasticizer by using a solution curtain-casting method. The cellulose triacetate membrane is characterized in that the dosage of the plasticizer is 3-15% of weight of the cellulose triacetate; the plasticizer is prepared from a triphenyl phosphate primary plasticizer and an aryl diphosphate coplasticizer; the weight ratio of aryl diphosphate to triphenyl phosphate is 1/6 to 4/5. By adopting the cellulose triacetate membrane, precipitation of the plasticizer caused by fluctuation of a production process condition in a membrane production process is solved; apparent defects of the membrane caused by precipitation of the plasticizer are avoided; the apparent mass, the optical property and the physical and mechanical properties of the membrane are ensured; meanwhile, the cellulose triacetate membrane accords with the environment-friendly emission requirements.

End-capped polyethylene terephthalate having superior carbonaceous char yield

Abstract: End-capping of PET with triphenyl phosphate (TPP), bisphenol A bis(diphenyl phosphate) (BDP), or resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) (RDP) as phosphorous containing flame retardants was performed by using benzoyl peroxide as initiator. 31P NMR and FT-IR spectroscopy were used to evaluate end-capping of PET and structural changes of specimens. From thermal characteristics evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis, BDP and RDP end-capped PETs show flame retarding mechanisms similar to those of blended counterparts. However, TPP end-capped PET presented superior carbonaceous char yields of up to 46.7 %, which was attributed to the condensed-phase action of TPP anchored at the ends of PET.

Fast cured heat resistant coatings based on phosphorus-containing organosilicon varnish

Abstract: The phosphorus-containing organosilicon varnish was synthesized by heating 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane, triphenyl phosphate, and octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane. Heat-resistant coatings formed on its basis were investigated by thermogravimetry, electronic absorption spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and atomic force microscopy.

Impact resistant stretch-proof plastic containing chlorosulfonated polyethylene

Abstract: The invention relates to an impact resistant stretch-proof plastic containing chlorosulfonated polyethylene. The plastic comprises the following components by weight: 40-50 parts of chlorosulfonated polyethylene, 40-50 parts of epoxy fatty acid butyl ester, 10-20 parts of zinc sulfide, 10-20 parts of methyl cellulose, 10-20 parts of glycerinum, 20-30 parts ofphenol novolac type epoxy resin and 20-30 parts of triphenyl phosphate. The prepared plastic containing chlorosulfonated polyethylene has good impact resistant stretch-proof effect.

Flame-retardant adhesive

Abstract: The invention discloses a flame-retardant adhesive which comprises a base material, a filling agent, a flame retardant, a polymerization inhibitor, a coupling agent, a stabilizer and an emulsifier, wherein the base material is bismaleimide; the filling agent is talcum powder; the flame retardant is triphenyl phosphate; the polymerization inhibitor is hydroquinone; the coupling agent is vinyltriethoxysilane; the stabilizer is dibasic lead phosphite; and the emulsifier is sodium alkyl benzene sulfonate. Multiple additives are added to bismaleimide, so that the flame-retardant adhesive formed by mixing has effects of good flame retardant property, stable product property, high strength and low cost, and cannot deteriorate in transportation and storage processes.

Composite flame retardant for silicon rubber additive and preparation method of flame retardant

Abstract: The invention relates to a composite flame retardant for a silicon rubber additive. The composite flame retardant is prepared from the following effective ingredients: triphenyl phosphate, magnesium stearate, bisphenol A, antimony trioxide and calcium carbonate. A preparation method of the composite flame retardant comprises the following steps of: putting triphenyl phosphate, magnesium stearate and calcium carbonate in a reaction kettle, increasing the temperature to 55-65 DEG C, and stirring; adding a catalyst antimony trioxide and bisphenol A; reducing the pressure, evenly increasing the temperature to 165-180 DEG C, preserving the temperature for 1-1.5 hours, continuously increasing the temperature to 220-250 DEG C, preserving the temperature for 1-2 hours and finishing reaction; discharging materials, naturally cooling the materials for solidification, and grinding the solidified materials in a grinder; pouring the ground materials in a washing kettle, adding absolute ethyl alcohol, washing for 0.5-1 hour, and discharging the washed materials; and drying the materials in a dryer. A silicon rubber product prepared from the flame retardant is good in flame retarding effect.

Preparation method of non-toxic isopropylate triphenyl phosphate

Abstract: The present invention relates to a preparation method of non-toxic isopropylate triphenyl phosphate, which includes the following steps of (1) charging the required phosphorus oxychloride, isopropyl phenol and magnesium catalyst into the reactor, wherein the phosphorus oxychloride and the isopropyl phenol at molar ratio of between 1:2.9 and 1:3.1; and the dosage of magnesium catalyst is 3-5 per mill of that of isopropyl phenol, reacting for 7 to 10 hours at the temperature of between 75 and 150DEG C in the vacuum of 30-720mmHg and negative-pressure draining acid; (2) extracting the fractions of between 270 and 280DEG C for the finished product under the pressure of 0.09-0.1Mpa to obtain the isopropylate triphenyl phosphate under the vacuum degree of 20mmHg. The present invention adopts the three isopropyl phenol and the phosphorus oxychloride as raw materials to obtain the optimum process condition through the orthogonal experiment. The method has good economic and social benefits, and solves problems of high toxicity from the phosphate flame retardant and TPP excessive impurity components produced by the original production method.

Flame-retardant cellulose triacetate film and preparation method thereof

Abstract: The invention discloses a flame-retardant cellulose triacetate film and a preparation method of the flame-retardant cellulose triacetate film The preparation method comprises the following steps of: mixing a strongly polar aprotic organic solvent and an organic phosphorus flame retardant with cellulose triacetate, and stirring and dissolving to obtain a homogeneous, transparent and viscous cellulose triacetate solution, wherein the organic phosphorus flame retardant is a mixture of triphenyl phosphate and other substances, and the other substances are any one or more of tricresyl phosphate, phosphotriester (xylene ester), triphenyl phosphate, resorcinol-bis-(diphenyl) phosphate and ammonium polyphosphate; and carrying out salivation, peeling, fixing, drying and cooling on the cellulose triacetate solution to obtain the flame-retardant cellulose triacetate film The preparation method of the flame-retardant cellulose triacetate film disclosed by the invention uses the strongly polar aprotic organic solvent, so that the environment is protected, and the operation is simple and safe The flame-retardant cellulose triacetate has the film thickness being 50mu m, and uses a UL94 vertical burning test method and achieves the V-0 level

Formula of modified crylic acid-styrene-propylene

Abstract: The invention discloses a formula of modified crylic acid-styrene-propylene. The formula comprises a crylic acid-styrene-propylene polymer and additives which comprise a weather-proof agent, a flame retardant, an antistatic agent, a filling agent and a cross-linking agent, wherein the weather-proof agent is 2-(2'-hydroxy-5'-methyl phenyl) benzotriazole, the flame retardant is triphenyl phosphate, the antistatic agent is ethoxylation alkyl acid amid, the filling agent is talcum powder, and the cross-linking agent is dicumyl peroxide. The modified crylic acid-styrene-propylene polymer has the characteristics of good fire resistance, strong antistatic property, good weather resistance, good fluidity, excellent mechanical physical property and the like.

Formula of modified ethyl cellulose

Abstract: The invention discloses a formula of modified ethyl cellulose. The formula comprises ethyl cellulose and additives. The additives comprise a flame retardant, a toughener, an impact modifier, an antioxidant and a coupling agent. The flame retardant is triphenyl phosphate. The toughener is polyvinyl acetate. The impact modifier is methyl methacrylate-butadiene-vinyl benzene. The antioxidant is p-phenylenediamine. The coupling agent is aminopropyl triethoxysilane. Through addition of multiple additives into ethyl cellulose, the flame retardant property, the toughness, the mechanical strength, the antioxidant property, the product quality of the modified ethyl cellulose are raised and the production cost is reduced.