Showing papers on "Water quality published in 1974"

Water Quality After Clearcutting a Small Watershed in West Virginia

Abstract: A 34-ha (85-acre) gaged watershed on the Fernow Experimental Forest, Parsons, West Virginia, was conventionally clearcut in 1969. Streamflow increased 20 cm (8 inches) during the first year after cutting, but rapid and luxuriant revegetation reduced the flow increase to only 6.4 cm (2.5 inches) during the second year. Water quality remained high. Clearcutting had a negligible effect on the stream's temperature, pH, nonstorm turbidity, and concentrations of dissolved solids, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, and NH4-N. Storm-period turbidity, nitrate-nitrogen, and phosphate concentrations showed slight increases, while the sulfate concentration decreased. Maximum nitrate-nitrogen concentration of 1.42 ppm was recorded during a 6.4-cm (2.5-inch) rainfall. Success in avoiding damage to water quality was attributed to careful road management, retention of a forest strip along the stream, and rapid, lush vegetative regrowth after Clearcutting. Additional Index Words: Even-aged forest management, logging, water chemistry, turbidity, specific conductance, nutrient concentrations, nutrient outflow, nitrates, stream temperature, water yield, streamflow. More and more people are taking an interest in how our forests are managed. Responsible people are asking a valid question—how does clearcutting affect the quantity and quality of the water flowing from clearcut lands? Years of research have shown that forest cutting increases and reforestation decreases water yield. The practical upper limit of yield increase appears to be about 4.5 mm/year for each percent reduction in forest cover, but most treatments produce less than half this amount. As reforestation proceeds after treatment water yield declines; the rate of decline varies between watersheds but appears to be related to the rate of forest recovery (3). The question of how does clearcutting affect the quality of water flowing from clearcut lands is not as easily answered. All streams contain varying amounts of nonwater substances, either dissolved or suspended in the water. And all of these substances affect the water quality in some manner. The traditional criterion of quality in forest streams, turbidity, is no longer sufficient. Looks can be deceiving; a sparkling, crystal-clear stream may have undesirable chemical characteristics. Only recently has research been directed to the effects of forest cutting on the chemical composition of streams draining cutover areas. A study on the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire focused attention on changes in the chemical composition of streams after deforestation (5). The treatment was strictly experimental. The trees were felled and left in place, lesser vegetation was killed, and regrowth was prevented by repeated applications of herbicide. This treatment was followed by such a large outflow of nutrients that water quality was adversely affected. Results of this experimental treatment caused many to express fears that all clearcutting will adversely affect water quality. There is a substantial difference between the Hubbard Brook treatment and conventional clearcutting. Conventional clearcutting also features complete forest cutting; but all saleable wood is harvested and rapid forest regeneration is encouraged. On the hypothesis that large nutrient outflow is not necessarily a result of conventional clearcutting, we began a study in 1969 on the Fernow Experimental Forest to provide information about the effects of clearcutting on water quality. In this paper conventional clearcutting is defined as the silvicultural method in which all trees on a given area are harvested in one cut; saleable logs and pulpwood are removed; and culls, small stems, and all other undesirable trees remaining after the harvest operation are cut or treated so that they will not interfere with the establishment of a new even-aged stand. This report summarizes our findings and conclusions from 2 years of close observation. 'Contribution from the Northeastern Forest Exp. Sta., USDA Forest Service. Received 9 June 1972. Soil Scientist and Forest Hydrologist at the USDA Forest Service Timber and Watershed Laboratory, Parsons, W. V. J. Environ. Quality, Vol. 3, no. 3,1974 243

Modeling flow and chemical quality changes in an irrigated stream‐aquifer system

Abstract: Salinity increases in groundwater and surface water in the Arkansas River valley of southeastern Colorado are primarily related to irrigation practices. A digital computer model was developed to predict changes in dissolved solid concentration in response to spatially and temporally varying hydrologic stresses. The equations that describe the transient flow of groundwater and the transport and dispersion of dissolved chemical constituents were solved numerically. The model simulated flow as well as changes in water quality for both the stream and the aquifer. Detailed field measurements made for a 1-yr period in an 11-mi reach of the valley between La Junta and the Bent-Otero county line were used to verify and calibrate the model. Measured water levels varied by an average of about 3 ft during the study period, and calculated water table elevations in the aquifer were within 1 ft of the observed values approximately 90% of the time. The specific conductances of water samples from five wells in one well field had a standard deviation of about 10% of the mean. Dissolved solid concentrations calculated by the model were within 10% of the observed values for both the aquifer and the stream approximately 80% of the time.

A Summary and Comparison of Nutrients and Related Water Quality in Lakes Erie, Ontario, Huron, and Superior

Abstract: A summary is made, from recent data obtained by the Canada Centre for Inland Waters, of nutrients and water quality of offshore waters of the Great Lakes (excluding Lake Michigan). A simple indexin...

Consumers Water Quality Index

Abstract: A water quality index based on physical, chemical, and biological parameters is proposed. The index is based on a geometric mean of transformed values of the parameters with a range of zero to one. The parameters of concern are temperature, nutrients, suspended solids, turbidity, coliform bacteria, dissolved oxygen, color, pH, grease, odor, and toxicity. The index is applied to some surface waters near Nashville, Tenn., and suggestions for further applications are presented.

Stream sediment composition: An aid to water quality assessment

Abstract: The trace element composition of stream sediments from catchments contaminated by past and present mining activities has been used to indicate the trace element status of associated waters. The paper discusses the possibility of using geochemical reconnaissance maps based on the analysis of stream sediments as an ancillary aid to water quality evaluation.

Nitrogen and Phosphorus Balance of Grass Carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Fed Elodea, Egeria densa

Abstract: The herbivorous grass carp fed winter elodea exhibited a negative nitrogen balance in metabolism, suggesting that food having a higher protein content would be required for normal growth. About a third of the phosphorus contained in food was retained; hence, a combination of aquatic plants and grass carp might afford an effective biological method for removing phosphorus from water. Water quality was altered by the excretion of ammonium and orthophosphate by grass carp. Even though the grass carp might be useful in removing some phosphorus from water, its principal impact was to increase the rate of recycling of nitrogen and phosphorus.

Effects of metal-mine drainage on water quality in selected areas of Colorado, 1972-73

Abstract: Intensive study of 18 different areas in Colorado—most of them complexore mining districts—has shown that significant amounts of acidily and metals are added to surface waters by drainage from mines and associated tailings. In the vicinity of Kerber Creek, acid drainage from an abandoned adit flows through a tailings pile and then into the stream; metal contributions from the tailings are greater than those from the adit. Stream pH's increase below the drainage due to dilution and neutralization of the acid by bicarb¬ onate. Dissolved metal concentrations decrease due to dilution, chemical precipitation, and probably adsorption onto ferric hydroxide particles. The relationships between pH and the various dissolved metals are inverse and, generally, well-defined. Total metal concentrations (dissolved plus suspended) in streams of the Kerber Creek area decrease below the drainage due to dilution and to settling of the precipitates. The latter process coats the stream bottom for a con¬ siderable distance downstream during low flows. Manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) remain predominantly in the dissolved phase: when they do precipitate they settle out rapidly. Cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), and nickel CNi), on the other hand, gradually shift from the dissolved to the suspended fraction, indicating a different removal process. The mobility sequence for the metals studied generally follows the order (decreasing mobility): Mn z Zn > Cu > Cd > Fe > Ni > Pb. This sequence is based on the percentage of each metal in solution and is predominantly independent of stream discharge. Both total and dissolved metal loads in streams of the Kerber Creek area are greater during high flow than during low flow, owing to flushing of water from mines and tailings piles, erosion of tailings, and scouring of chemical precipitates from the stream bottom. Generally speaking, total and dissolved loads decrease downstream regardless of discharge, the primary exception being total Fe during high flow. In June 1973, for example, the total Fe I 2 EFFECTS OF METAL-MINE DRAINAGE ON WATER QUALITY, COLORADO 1972-73 load increased throughout the entire length of the study reach below the acid drainage—a distance of greater than 20 miles (32 kilometres). This is apparently due to scouring of the light, flocculent precipitate from the stream bottom. Analysis of this precipitate shows it to be primarily an amorphous, hydrated ferric oxide. Intensive study of 17 additional areas in Colorado has shown that compar¬ able processes act in all areas affected by metal-mine drainage. Precipitates from several complex-ore study areas are similar in composition. And, given enough time and distance, the streams recover naturally by dilution, chemical precipitation, and settling. One additional natural recovery mechanism was noted in the Alamosa Creek and Lake Creek study areas, where lakes downstream from metal-mine drainage acted as metal sinks. This effect was independent of stream discharge. INTRODUCTION Colorado is a child of mining. In the past, towns such as Cripple Creek, Leadville, Creede, and many others were the lifeblood of the economy. While metal mining is still economically important to Colorado, another legacy of this past activity is attracting increasing attention—the detri¬ mental effects of drainage from abandoned and active mines and tailings piles (waste rock piles) on streams. Concern with metal-mine drainage is due to the acid resulting from oxidation of pyritic material. The acid itself can be harmful to aquatic organisms, and can make the water unusable for various recreational and industrial needs. Just as importantly, however, the acid dissolves metals from ores and tailings piles and releases them into the streams. Many of the metals are toxic to aquatic organisms, humans, and livestock; and, like excess acidity, the metals can make streams unusable for some types of recreation and industry. In July 1971, a study of the effects of both metaland coal-mine drainage on surface-water quality in Colorado was undertaken by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Colorado Water Pollution Control Commission. Based on the reconnaissance phase of this project (Wentz, 1974), 17 areas judged to be adversely affected by metal-mine drainage were chosen for further study (see fig. 1). One additional area (area 18, fig. 1) was included because it is the only place found in Colorado that potentially could be affected by coal-mine drainage. The present report summarizes the intensive study of these areas; it is the second product of the mine-drainage study. The first report was published as Colorado Water Resources Circular 21. ^ EFFECTS OF METAL-MINE DRAINAGE ON WATER QUALITY, COLORADO 1972-73 Purpose and Scope The basic objective of this study was to determine the extent to which mining activities have affected the water quality in the 18 study areas and to gain a better understanding of the physical and chemical processes involved. More specifically, the intent was to determine what metals were entering the streams, how far they traveled downstream, how they varied seasonally, and what mechanisms were responsible for their transport and removal from the aqueous phase. In addition, the report discusses specific sources of pollu¬ tion, observed and potential effects of mining activities on organisms, and effects on the ground-water resource. A total of 268 water samples were collected at 134 sites in the 18 study areas between October 1, 1972, and June 28, 1973. One sample was collected on April 23, 1974. These areas together account for approximately 291 miles (468 km) of streams which, to varying degrees, have been adversely affected by mine drainage.

Economic Damages From Residential Use of Mineralized Water Supply

Abstract: Household appliances and personal items in contact with water supplied municipally or from private sources are subject to physical damages from chemical and other constituents of the water. This study translates these damages into economic losses for a typical household. Then it aggregates these losses at the national and individual state levels. To do so required several stages of analysis. First, the types of physical damages expected and the associated water quality determinants were identified, and the physical effects were then translated into economic losses. Second, damage functions were formulated to predict likely impacts of water quality changes on each household unit affected. Third, a computer program based on these functions was designed to estimate total damages per typical household and to aggregate them over selected regions. Finally, the program was applied to state-by-state data describing water supply sources and socioeconomic parameters. Total annual damages to U.S. residents in 1970 were estimated to be in the range $0.65–$3.45 billion, the mean being $1.75 billion. The mean translates to $8.60 per person annually. States having the highest total damages were California ($230 million) and Illinois ($164 million). On a per capita basis, Arizona ($22.53) and New Mexico ($18.58) ranked highest, whereas South Carolina ($1.15) and Oregon ($1.73) were at the other end of the spectrum. When per capita damages were compared by source of water supply, private wells were highest at an average of $12.34, treated groundwater was next at $11.20, and treated surface water was last at only $5.83.

Characterization and treatment of urban land runoff

Abstract: Urban land runoff from a 1.67 square-mile urban watershed in Durham, North Carolina, was characterized with respect to annual pollutant yield. Regression equations were developed to relate pollutant strength to hydrograph characteristics. Urban land runoff was found to be a significant source of pollution when compared to the raw municipal waste generated within the study area. On an annual basis, the urban runoff yield of COD was equal to 91 percent of the raw sewage yield, the BOD yield was equal to 67 percent, and the urban runoff suspended solids yield was 20 times that contained in raw municipal wastes for the same area. Downstream water quality was judged to be controlled by urban land runoff 20 percent of the time (i.e., the pounds of COD from urban land runoff was approximately 4-1/2 times the pounds of COD from raw sewage). It is conceivable that critical water quality conditions are not typified by the 10-year, 7-day low flow, but by the period immediately following low-flow periods when rainfall removes accumulated urban filth into the receiving watercourse, greatly increasing the pollutant load while not substantially increasing water quantity. Specific urban land use did not appear to infleunce the quality of urban land runoff. The applicability and effectiveness of plain sedimentation and chemical coagulation of urban land runoff was evaluated. Plain sedimentation was found to remove an average of 60 percent of the COD, 77 percent of the suspended solids, and 53 percent of the turbidity. Cationic polyelectrolytes and inorganic coagulants were found to provide significant residual removal increases over plain sedimentation. Alum was judged the best coagulant and produced average removals of COD, suspended solids, and turbidity of 84, 97, and 94 percent, respectively. The EPA Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) was evaluated with respect to actual conditions as measured in the field. The model was judged to predict peak hydrograph flows and total hydrograph volumes with reasonable accuracy; however, it was not judged effective for predicting pollutant concentrations. In urban drainage basins, investments in upgrading secondary municipal waste treatment plants without concomitant steps to moderate the adverse effects of urban land runoff are questionable in view of the apparent relative impact of urban land runoff on receiving water quality. This report was submitted in fulfillment of Project Number 11030 HJP by the North Carolina Water Resources Research Institute under partial sponsorship of the Office of Research and Development, Environmental Protection Agency. Work was completed as of September 1, 1973.

Environmental factors influencing isolation of enteroviruses from polluted surface waters

Abstract: The influence of water quality upon the concentration of virus on location was assessed in field studies conducted in the Houston ship channel, Galveston Bay, and Houston waste treatment plants. Clarification of polluted surface waters was accomplished with minimal loss of virus. Virus from clarified sewage effluents and saline waters was then adsorbed and concentrated on textile and membrane filter surfaces. Direct measurements of virus from large volumes of polluted surface waters under existing field conditions were then made using the virus concentrator equipment.

Optimal timing and sizing of a conjunctive urban water supply and waste water system with nonlinear programing

Abstract: A mathematical model of a conjunctively operated urban water supply and waste water system is formulated and applied to the city of Los Angeles. The objectives are (1) to minimize the cost of supplying water from several sources, including the provision for recycling reclaimed water, and (2) to determine the capacity expansion schedule of the water and waste water treatment processes. The water sources vary in quality, quantity, and cost. Constraints on water quality constituents as well as on quantity are included. The model formulated consists of the minimization of a concave objective function subject to linear constraints. A multilevel solution technique is developed to determine the minimum cost alternative for a selected planning horizon. The mathematical model is flexible in that it can be expanded to include additional water quality constituents, advanced waste water treatment processes, and variations in water quality standards.

State-of-the-Art Survey and Evaluation of Marsh Plant Establishment Techniques: Induced and Natural. Volume 1. Report of Research.

Abstract: : Knowledge of marsh and aquatic plant establishment was assessed by reviewing the literature and contacting agencies and individuals likely to have relevant information. Factors that affect plant establishment in saltwater areas include tides, salinity, drainage, aeration, water table, rainfall, soil, evaporation, temperature, biota, water depth, light penetration, and current and wave action. In freshwater areas water levels or depths, substrate, water quality, turbidity, and currents and wave action are particularly important to plant establishment Aquatic and marsh plants propagate naturally by both seeds and vegetative parts. The propagules are dispersed by wind, water animals, and man. By controlling various environmental factors, it is possible to promote and encourage the natural invasion and growth of aquatic and marsh plants, especially in freshwater systems. In many cases, plantings of aquatic and marsh plants will be necessary to vegetate a new substrate. Seeding appears to be the least expensive procedure, but environmental conditions must be favorable or success will be low. Transplants usually provide faster establishment and are hardier than seedlings. Efforts at establishing Spartina alterniflora in Atlantic coast marshes have shown good results.

Bacteriological Assessment of Spoon River Water Quality

Abstract: Data from a study of five stations on the Spoon River, Ill., during June 1971 through May 1973 were analyzed for compliance with Illinois Pollution Control Board's water quality standards of a geometric mean limitation of 200 fecal coliforms per 100 ml. This bacterial limit was achieved about 20% of the time during June 1971 through May 1972, and was never achieved during June 1972 through May 1973. Ratios of fecal coliform to total coliform are presented. By using fecal coliform-to-fecal streptococcus ratios to sort out fecal pollution origins, it was evident that a concern must be expressed not only for municipal wastewater effluents to the receiving stream, but also for nonpoint sources of pollution in assessing the bacterial quality of a stream.

Water in the nutrient cycle of a Papuan rain forest

Abstract: INTEGRATED ecosystem studies of nutrient cycling on a catchment basis1 for tropical rain forest areas are few2–4, but information on the effects of nutrient cycling in these ecosystems on soil development, hydrology, and variations in stream water quality is needed, since rain forested areas in many developing tropical countries are rapidly being cleared to provide agricultural land5.

Evaluation of Phosphorus Dynamics in a Watershed

Abstract: Phosphorus dynamics in a small river system have been measured to determine phosphorus transport mechanisms and correlation with hydrodynamic phenomena. Variation of chemical forms with flow conditions are related to point and diffuse sources and general equations derived. Mass balances are developed and diurnal changes are described.

Sources of phosphorus inputs from the atmosphere and their significance to oligotrophic lakes

Abstract: P r e c i p i t a t i o n i n the Chicago a r e a was analysed and found t o conta in .034 mg/l. of phosphorus wi th about one h a l f of t h i s p r e sen t a s o r tho phospha te . Because of t h e smal l amounts of phosphorus needed t o s t i m u l a t e t h e growth of organisms i n bodies of water which a r e phosphorus l i m i t e d , t h e s e i npu t s from t h e atmosphere a r e important t o many n a t u r a l bodies of water . From one f i f t h t o one-third of t he phosphorus going i n t o Lake Michigan i s from p r e c i p i t a t i o n . The sources of t h i s phosphorus were i n v e s t i g a t e d and found t o be almost a l l sources of p a r t i c u l a t e ma t t e r . With t h e except ion of emissions from t h e f e r t i l i z e r i ndus t ry t h e s e were found t o conta in a r e l a t i v e l y cons i s t en t 0 . 1 percent phosphorus. Since t h e d i scharge of p a r t i c u l a t e s t o t h e atmosphere a r e being c o n t r o l l e d , con t r ibu t ions of phosphorus t o bodies of water from t h e atmosphere would a l s o be con t ro l l ed . Murphy, Thomas J . SOURCES OF PHOSPHORUS INPUTS FROM THE ATMOSPHERE AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE TO OLIGOTROPHIC LAKES This is t h e f i n a l r e p o r t of p r o j e c t A-065-111 t o t h e Of f i ce of Water Research and Technology..