Showing papers on "Water scarcity published in 1989"

Macro-scale water scarcity requires micro-scale approaches: aspects of vulnerability in semi-arid development

Abstract: 4 types of water scarcity exist. Aridity and intermittent droughts consist of the natural types while land desiccation and water stress are man-made types. Climatic aridity intermittent droughts land degradation and population growth link to create growing critical water scarcity conditions. Specifically in arid lands where only a limited growing season exists anyhow increased and nonsustaining activities spurred on by population growth degrade soils resulting in interference with water recharge of the root zone. This combination precipitates intermittent droughts upsetting the water supply for plants and people. This occurs now in Africa to the degree that by 2025 66% of people will experience severe water shortages. Policymakers in developing countries and bilateral and multilateral development agencies providing technical assistance need to understand these relationships. They must develop a new strategy which includes water resource assessments followed by upgraded water plans for optimal use of available water resources and by the creation of best land use criteria. Their challenge is to balance the acute needs of people with conserving the productivity of the resource base. Experience shows that maximizing agricultural production per unit of water instead of per unit of land can increase income and employment. For example in India a semiarid area produced with a given amount of water as much as 30 times the amount of crops if the crops had a low water demand (e.g. grapes and potatoes) rather than those with a high water demand (e.g. sugarcane). This microscale approach and other such approaches could help semiarid Africa. Yet decision makers must seriously consider the transferability of these approaches to the African cultural and geographical environment. More essential than that however is the very high levels of water stress caused by the rapid population growth in famine-prone African countries.

The massive water scarcity now threatening Africa - why isn't it being addressed?

Abstract: Most of Africa already experiences water scarcity. These same areas even face interannual fluctuations in precipitation resulting in large-scale problems and migration of peoples to more water-rich areas. Yet many water specialists do not recognize the considerable water scarcity problem in Africa. Most African countries have inadequate hydrological networks and have not conducted large-scale resource assessments to use for development planning including national water master plans. Nations depend on precipitation + inflowing waters (rivers and aquifers) - evaporation losses form vegetation and wet surfaces - outflowing water (rivers and aquifers). Self-sufficiency in food production relies on water from rain and technical supplies (irrigation). Continual population growth in Africa cause water consumption levels to go so high that many countries have already reached the water stress level (>500 persons/flow unit). By 2000 12 African countries with a population of 250 million people will be water stressed. 150 million of these people will live in countries with absolute water scarcity. Tunisia will be beyond the water barrier. By 2025 the total number of water-stressed African countries will be 21 (1.1 billion people). Kenya Rwanda Burundi and Malawi will be beyond the water barrier. Population growth accounts for the difference between 2000 and 2025. Yet many engineers and economists do not accept the existence of water barrier. They do not consider the fact that many African leaders do not have the mechanisms and tools available to meet water demand. This man-induced water scarcity is exacerbated by the fact than many of these countries are in arid climates and at constant risk of intermittent drought. Poor land management in Africa further increases the risk of desiccation. Population control is needed. In addition policymakers must develop sound water strategies and integrate them with land management.

Long‐Term Options for Municipal Water Conservation

Abstract: Water conservation measures initiated by municipalities have usually been short-term efforts to minimize the effects of a drought or other temporary water shortage. Now, because of increasing demands on limited water resources, water conservation measures are being reassessed as long-term methods of reducing municipal water use. Long-term measures require a somewhat different planning approach than do short-term measures. Municipalities can choose from a variety of water conservation options, including metering and leak detection, building code revisions, water saving devices, water rates, landscaping changes, water use restrictions, and water reuse. Some of these options are more appropriate than others for individual cities. To ensure successful results, all conservation programs should include public education.

Middle East hydropolitics: water scarcity and conflicts in the Middle East. A report from the Center for Strategic and International Studies Washington.

Abstract: Population growth and water scarcity will likely cause water crises international disputes and wars in the Middle East especially in the Jordan River the Nile River and the Tigris-Euphrates basins. Water instead of oil is becoming the dominant resource of the Middle East. The main problem for all 3 basins is that downstream countries rely on the water form better endowed upstream countries but the upstream countries (Ethiopia from the Blue Nile Syria from the Yarmuk and Turkey from the upper Tigris-Euphrates) plan to divert water for irrigation to increase agricultural production. The water situation in the Jordan basin is the most severe. Almost 25% of water resources in Israel exist in the aquifer it shares with the West Bank. Water scarcity in the West Bank may inhibit the creation of an independent Palestinian state. Very rapid population growth in all the countries affects the finite water resources. Syria wants to divert up to 40% of the flow of the Yarmuk River it shares with Jordan which threatens Jordans future water supply. This may result in increased salinity in the lower Yarmuk and the lower Jordan rivers. Iraq has agreed to transfer water from the Euphrates to Jordan. Ethiopia plans to divert water from the Blue Nile to irrigate 120000 hectares. Sudan intends to divert water from the Nile river through a pipeline to support Saudi Arabia. The S.E. Anatolia Project in Turkey reduces water inflow into Syria and Iraq. Upstream pollution in Turkey only adds to the water problems especially in Iraq. Desalination various techniques based on solar energy and the feasibility of irrigating with seawater after growing halophytes do allow some optimism however. Turkey has proposed a peace pipeline which would divert water form 2 rivers feeding the Mediterranean to Jordan Saudi Arabia Syria and the Gulf states.

Brushland management for increased water yield in Texas

Abstract: Policies to encourage brush management are under consideration as a means to address the water scarcity issue in Texas. Additional water can be generated by treating some of the 100-million-plus acres of brush-infested rangelands in Texas. Evidence of water yield benefits are, however, tentative at this time. Economic investigations based on available data show the potential desirability of brush management but also show benefits to be critically dependent on added water yield, value, and cost-sharing policy. Wildlife, water rights, and environmental issues are also important considerations. The lack of research information on likely impacts makes it difficult to choose among alternative policies for encouraging brush management. More research on this potential opportunity is needed.

Water Requirements versus Water Availability in Saudi Arabia

Abstract: Water demand in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has increased from 1750 million cubic meters (Mm3) in 1975to more than 9,600 Mm3 in 1985, a five-fold increase in ten years. At the same time increase on the supply side through water recycling and seawater desalination has been from around 18 Mm3 to 605 Mm3 during the same period. The development of these additional water supplies have been, however, far short of the increase in water demand, with groundwater making up the difference. This paper examines the above problem from the viewpoint of supply-demand balance. First, the paper assesses the surface and groundwater resources of the Kingdom, and the present as well as the future conditions of sea water desalination and water cycling. The water demands of the various use sectors are given followed by projections of future water demands. The third phase compares the water supply-demand situation under present and future conditions. From this comparison it was evident that unless there is a change in the current water use practices, groundwater, the major water resource of the Kingdom, will be mined in few decades and the extent that its usefulness may be severely diminished as a resource. When this develops, a severe water crisis will occur. The crisis can be reduced in severity, or averted, by taking the needed steps to bring into balance the annual water use with annual water supply.

Drought episodes management: the role of price1

Abstract: Municipal water utilities, when faced with drought conditions, typically impose a temporary water use restrictions program to achieve conservation goals. If water is sufficiently price-elastic, however, at least some of the problems associated with restrictions can be avoided by imposing a drought surcharge and allowing users to adjust voluntarily. This paper develops two sources of evidence on price elasticity in Honolulu, Hawaii, with the evidence suggesting that a drought surcharge will induce much of the desired conservation, especially when used with educational publicity.

Water Marketing in California

Abstract: In one of the world's consummate entrepreneurial environments, a commodity as vital as water is so difficult to buy and sell. Why has water marketing become widely used in the rest of the southwestern United States and even in the Midwest and not in California? The answer to that question is complex. The discussion of water marketing is divided to treat surface and subsurface water separately.

Climate Change and U.S. Water Resources: Results from a Study by the American Association for Advancement of Science

Abstract: The time horizon of the changes that might occur is similar to the time required for planning, approval, funding, construction and economic life of such major water facilities as dams, irrigation canals, treatment plants and drainage systems The report of the AAAS study considers the prospects for climate change, the relationships between climate and hydrology, and the possible effects of climate change on floods, droughts, irrigated agriculture, water supply, water quality, recreation and wildlife, urban water systems, and hydro-power Economic and political implications are discussed The study concludes that the consequences of global warming on water systems throughout the United States will be significant, widespread, and expensive to mitigate

Global-Change-Induced Disturbances of Water-Related Phenomena - The European Perspective

Abstract: Impact of global change on human society will first be felt through disturbances of water-related phenomena. Traditionally, land use discussions only seldom reflect water phenomena. Present methods may therefore be poor tools in addressing the impact of global change. This report takes an alternative approach to land use by addressing a number of water-related phenomena from the perspective of their relation to land use and land-use-related societal activities. Such activities include both those dependent upon water supply or water-related land attributes, and those generating impacts on local water balance or on freshwater in aquifers and rivers. A series of matrices are presented to clarify propagation of change, based on the continuity and interdependence of water cycle related phenomena. Global change impacts in Europe are tentatively described in a 70 year scenario composed of two phases: first water quality changes, later hydrological shifts with major consequences both for water availability and other water-related impacts on societal activities. Sustainable development is described as a question of a sustainable interaction between human society and the water cycle including all the ecosystems fed by that cycle. Man is seen as a factor in landscape hydrology, due to the intervention introduced as a part of land use activities. Water management and protection is basically seen as a question of balancing dependencies on water against threats to that water. The report ends with a discussion of water-related decisions, both those concerning projects involving visible water, and those where water is involved in a more or less hidden way. The section includes the main conclusions from a policy workshop on the societal impacts of a changing hydroclimate where the Po river basin was used as the case to which policy makers were invited to react. The paper closes with an open question: is the traditional "dry: approach taken to land use really effective? How will that approach allow attention to land-use-generated impacts on water phenomena? Will the present way of seeing water as a conditional factor only in relation to plant growth be helpful enough, when addressing impacts of global change in regions where water scarcity and soil water deficiency will expand and influence land use?

National Water Conference

Abstract: This book contains papers presented at the ASCE National Water Conference held at the University of Delaware, Newark, DE, July 17-20, 1989 The National Water Conference was cosponsored by the Irrigation and Drainage Division and the Water Resources Planning and Management Division of ASCE The conference focused on major water resources problems facing engineers into the twenty-first century Papers discussed water quality problems from various stand points including nonpoint sources of pollution form urban stormwater and agricultural runoff Management alternatives under drought conditions received significant coverage at the conference Instream flow requirements were discussed as well as water based recreational needs projections The Task Committee for rewriting the Salinity Manual of Irrigation and Drainage presented the several sessions on the manual update Papers on urban hydrology and design of urban drainage facilities were presented as well as a review of ground water protection of strategies for the northeast states This collection thus enables the engineer to focus on the major water resources issues of the immediate future

The effect of low water levels on the water quality of Lake Biwa

Abstract: Because of a lack of precipitation, water levels in Lake Biwa, Japan, were extremely low between the beginning of September 1984 and the end of February 1985. Approximately 13 million people depend upon the lake as a source of drinking water and for industrial use, and the severe water shortage became a serious concern for downstream communities. Also, there was concern that deterioration of water quality caused by rotting macrophytes and the release of nutrients from vegetation and nearshore sediments might create additional problems.

Community management of rural water supply : a study of seven projects in Francophone West Africa

Abstract: This report is part of the overall strategy of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and World Bank water supply and sanitation program to document community management approaches world-wide and to refine models for community management of water and sanitation services through demonstration projects. Over the last twenty years, community management of water supplies has been promoted in many Francophone West African countries. This report presents a summary of some of the components that are key to establishing community management of water supply. In view of the importance of communities taking responsibility for the long term maintenance of water supplies, it was felt that many useful lessons can be learned from the experience of projects that had successfully involved communities in the management of their water supplies. The following seven projects were chosen: Mouhoun and Yatenga in Burkina Faso; Aqua Viva, Mali Sud, and Kita in Mali; and Plateau-Savane and Maritime in Togo. They were selected on the basis of an initial review of project documents, progress reports, and evaluations. Field work was conducted in October and November 1988 and the results are summarized in the report. Each section of the report presents: a discussion of the component in question, a comment highlighting the aspects which contribute to the effectiveness of the approaches used, and tables with specific information on the component. The study methodology, described in detail in annex one, includes a description of the approach, a list of the people interviewed, and the types of questions asked. The methodology describes the basic approach of interviewing project staff, community members, area mechanics, artisans, water point committee members, etc. A sample blank questionnaire is provided in annex two and the seven questionnaires which were completed are included as annex three. The questionnaires were used to obtain the following information on the projects: background on the projects and beneficiaries; water resource information; financing; construction; extension; water committees; maintenance and spare parts distribution; and other project activities. A list of persons met and project documents consulted during the study can be found in annexes four and five respectively.

What a Layperson Needs to Know About Water Rights

Abstract: People who cannot obtain water service from a water utility need to obtain a right to use a surface or ground water supply. The increasing scarcity of uncommitted water supplies makes this a task that can be difficult and may require professional help. Review of water rights in the United States showed a large variation between States. Also, water rights laws and regulations are changing. A broader view of beneficial use of water, but a stricter view of reasonable use, are being taken.

Water Rights and the Bankruptcy of Judicial Action: The Case of Herminghaus v. Southern California Edison

Abstract: In the 1920s many California boosters felt that the state was finally approaching a resolution of the problem of water shortage. An ample supply of water was essential to the continued economic development of the arid state, and its capture had provoked numerous legal and legislative battles during the preceding sixty years. The outbreak of armed conflict in the Owens Valley in 1924 and 1927 underscored the seriousness of the problem. There residents resorted to dynamite in a futile attempt to stop the diversion of the valley's water to Los Angeles. Yet as this violence broke out, hope ran high for a solution to water problems. The state legislature was investigating an innovative project to provide water to the arid regions of the state. First introduced in 1919 by the engineer Robert Marshall, this plan proposed a bold design of aqueducts and reservoirs that would reroute the abundant waters of the northern half of the state to the

Risk Management and Operational Guidance for Municipal Water Supplies

Abstract: The proper initiation of water use restrictions for municipal water systems should depend upon the risk of system shortfall, the economic loss associated with those shortfalls, and the range of management options available. Often these considerations are overshadowed by more subjective considerations that can not be easily quantified. This paper presents the results of a risk methodology designed to integrate quantitative factors into optimal policies through the use of an operational database. This methodology evaluates the range of economic risk associated with each management option. A discussion of a response curve approach also is presented with an application to the Seattle, Washington water supply system. These issues are pursued further in additional papers found in these proceedings by the author in which the more subjective aspects of the problems are addressed.

Closure of "Major Water Resource Problems and Projects in China"

Abstract: Some water resource problems and projects in China are outlined in this note. Major water resources problems identified here are 1) Flood damage mitigation: 2) water shortage in the north; and 3) rapid nationwide water quality deterioration. Two ambitious water resources projects, namely, the Three Gorge and South-North Water Transfer Projects, are presently being planned to alleviate the current water problems, and are briefly introduced in this note.