Showing papers on "Water scarcity published in 1997"

Clear water, blue skies : China's environment in the new century

Abstract: Since 1978 China's economy has produced economic growth rates making it one of the fastest growing economies. In the same period, China's environment has deteriorated significantly. Rapid urbanization and industrialization have generated enormous volumes of air and water pollutants, lowering air and water quality. China's urban population soared, moving more Chinese closer to industrial smokestacks and residential emissions and increasing the number of people exposed to polluted urban air and water. This report focuses on two of China's most pressing environmental concerns -air and water pollution- and their relation to economic growth. Specifically, it addresses three questions: What are the costs of pollution in China today? Will future economic growth impair or improve air and water quality? And what policies are needed now to ensure that rising incomes translate into a higher environmental standard of living for current and future generations? Chapter one estimates the costs of pollution -urban air pollution, indoor air pollution, water pollution, and lead pollution- on health (premature deaths and sicknesses); and assesses the damage to productive resources and urban infrastructure. Chapter two examines the economic reforms and environmental policies that can hold pollution costs in check. Various scenarios are presented: the business-as-usual scenario and alternative scenarios that increase fuel substitutions, improve energy efficiency and conservation and diversify energy supplies, invest in air pollution control, develop public transportation systems and discourage vehicle use, raise the abatement rate for industrial water pollution, and increase the coverage and level of municipal wastewater treatment. Chapter three concentrates on improving efficiency and developing coal alternatives, and controlling emissions by industrial, power, commercial, and household sources. Chapter four focuses on China's need to revamp its regulatory system to harness market forces and reorient new investment to safeguard the environment. Chapter five argues that China should shape its urban environmental destiny by both using the conventional pollution control policies and harnessing its own considerable administrative and coordinating capacity in transportation management and municipal planning. Water shortages and water pollution, two main water-related constraints to China's socioeconomic development, are the focus of Chapter six. Finally, Chapter seven encourages China to turn its assets into advantages for preserving and improving its environment and securing higher environmental living standards.

Water allocation mechanisms : principles and examples

Abstract: What does it mean to treat water as an economic good? What does it mean to allocate appropriately? From the earliest times, water resources have been allocated on the basis of social criteria - maintaining the community by ensuring that water is available for human consumption, for sanitation, and for food production. Societies have invested capital in infrastructure to maintain this allocation. Yet social change, including changes in (and more understanding of) how goods are distributed, has produced new issues in water allocation. Population growth has made water scarcity a major problem in many countries and water pollution, while by no means a recent problem, is more widespread than ever before. Traditionally the state has played a dominant role in managing water resources, but inefficient use of water, poor cost recovery for operating and maintenance expenses, the mounting cost of developing new water sources, and problems with the quality of service in agency-managed systems has led to a search for alternatives that make water allocation and management more efficient. Dinar, Rosegrant, and Meinzen-Dick address some of the basic principles of treating water as an economic good and of allocating it among sectors. After outlining the economic principles behind allocating scarce water resources, they review the actual means of various mechanisms used for allocating water, including marginal cost pricing, social planning, user-based allocation, and water markets. Giving examples from experience in several countries, they weigh the pros and cons of different approaches to water allocation, showing that no single approach is suitable for all situations. Clearly the state must play an important regulatory role, for example, but how effectively it does so depends on the relative political influence of various stakeholders and segments of society. User-based allocation is generally more flexible than state allocation, but collective action is not equally effective everywhere; it is most likely to emerge where there is strong demand for water and a history of cooperation. The outcome of market allocation depends on the economic value of water for various uses, but moving toward tradable property rights in water may ease the process of intersectoral reallocation by compensating the losers and creating incentives for efficient water use in all sectors. This paper - a joint product of the Sector Policy and Water Resources Division, Agriculture and Natural Resources Department, and the International Food Policy Research Institute - is part of a larger effort implement the 1993 World Bank`s Water Resources Management Policy.

Meeting water requirements of an expanding world population

Abstract: Water availability in the root zone (‘green water’) is a critical component of plant production, but is often deficient in many Third World regions. When deficient, runoff water (‘blue water’) can be added. Focusing on ten physiographic regions in Africa and Asia, characterized by mainly or partly dry climates and rapid population growth, this study analyses whether in a 30–years' perspective enough blue water could be provided to allow food self–sufficiency. It is assumed that for food self–sufficiency some 900 cubic metres of water per person per year has to be provided. In judging the realism it is assumed that a maximum 25 per cent increase in water mobilization rate would be manageable in a 30–year period. The study suggests that by 2025, water scarcity will make regions populated by some 55 % of the world's population dependent on food imports. For water–wasting regions in Central Asia, water saving might, however, free the water needed. The paper closes by proposing some urgent measures.

Water Resources in the Twenty-First Century: Challenges and Implications for Action

Abstract: In this paper, Mark W. Rosegrant assesses global water supply and demand, describes in detail the forces contributing to water scarcity, and lays out a number of strategies for managing water in the future. Any solution, Rosegrant asserts, will need to involve both the careful exploitation of new sources of water and strong measures to stimulate more efficient use of water. Policies must treat water not as a free good, as they often do now, but rather as a scarce commodity that comes at a price. Cooperation between countries sharing the same water basin will also become increasingly important as water becomes more scarce.

Water allocation mechanisms: principles and examples

Abstract: From the earliest times, water resources have been allocated on the basis of social criteria -maintaining the community by ensuring that water is available for human consumption, for sanitation, and for food production Societies have invested capital in infrastructure to maintain this allocation Yet social change, including changes in (and more understanding of) how goods are distributed, has produced new issues in water allocation Population growth has made water scarcity a major problem in many countries and water pollution, while by no means a recent problem, is more widespread than ever before Traditionally the state has played a dominant role in managing water resources, but inefficient use of water, poor cost recovery for operating and maintenance expenses, the mounting cost of developing new water sources, and problems with the quality of service in agency-managed systems has led to a search for alternatives that make water allocation and management more efficient The authors address some of the basic principles of treating water as an economic good and of allocating it among the sectors After outlining the economic principles behind allocating scarce water resources, they review the actual means of various mechanisms used for allocating water, including marginal cost pricing, social planning, user-based allocation, and water markets Giving examples from experience in several countries, they weigh the pros and cons of different approaches to water allocation, showing that no single approach is suitable for all situations Clearly that state must play an important regulatory role, for example, but how effectively it does so depends on the relative political influence of various stakeholders and segments of society User-based allocation is generally more flexible than state allocation, but collective action is not equally effective everywhere; it is most likely to emerge where there is strong demand for water and a history of cooperation The outcome of market allocation depends on the economic value of water for various uses, but moving toward tradable property rights in water may ease the process of intersectoral reallocation by compensating the"losers"and creating incentives for efficient water use in all sectors

Sustaining water easing scarcity: a second update.

Abstract: This Population Action International report re-estimates projected water supplies by 2050 in accordance with revised 1996 UN population projections. The report summarizes the causes and consequences of water scarcity and explains the importance of slower population growth. Water scarcity issues will depend in part on how rapidly population grows. Current estimates update a 1993 report. 400 million to 1.5 billion fewer people will live in water shortage countries by 2050 than had been previously projected. The improved scenario does not eliminate the concern about renewable freshwater scarcity for many millions. Currently over 430 million people live in countries experiencing water stress. By 2050 the percentage of people living in water-stressed countries will increase three- to five-fold. Data on population growth were obtained from "UN World Population Prospects: the 1996 Revision"; data on water supplies from "World Resources 1996-97: A Guide to the Global Environment." This revision is necessary because world population growth is slowing more dramatically than previously expected. Larger population size is the most significant human influence on the availability of fresh water. A Swedish hydrologist established a water stress index that indicates that humans require an estimated 100 liters/person/day for basic drinking bathing and cooking. 5-20 times this amount is needed to meet the demands of agriculture industry and energy. Countries with over 1700 cu. meters of renewable fresh water per person per year will experience intermittent or localized water shortages. Chronic and widespread water scarcity occurs under 1000 cu. meters. The figures refer to renewable fresh water. Figures do not account for nonrenewable groundwater timing or seasonality or adaptability of nations. Amounts above 1700 cu. meters do not assure an abundant freshwater supply at all times and in all places.

Society's interaction with the water cycle: a conceptual framework for a more holistic approach

Abstract: This paper takes as its starting point today's paradoxical situation where a global water crisis is threatening a world in which water illiteracy is widespread among those expected to cope with that crisis. This creates a huge communication challenge for hydrologists, having to brief decision makers, diplomats and politicians in a manner that is simplistic without being water-reductionistic. The paper proposes some simple explanatory models, to be used for explaining and visualizing fundamental man/water interactions. It also discusses environmental sustainability criteria and their consequences in terms of the capacity to support water dependent populations. Large stress is put on land/water interactions. The paper ends with a conceptual framework based on the water cycle, distinguishing between rural and urban water use, water structures for mobilizing water for such uses, side effects, and key points for societal control mechanisms.

Irrigation and food security in the 21st century

Abstract: Global food projections indicate that food prices in the next threedecades will likely be stable or decline, but progress inreducing malnutrition in developing countries will be slow. Smallshortfalls in crop productivity growth would lead to rising foodprices and worsening malnutrition. Increased food production fromirrigation is essential, and will require expansion of irrigatedarea and water supplies, and improved efficiency of use of existingwater supplies. Neither of these growth factors will prove easy, andboth will require complex institutional and policy reforms. Failureto meet food production needs through efficient expansion andintensification of irrigated agriculture would increase pressure onland resources and hasten the process of environmental degradation.Irrigation and water development strategies have been hampered bya lack of understanding of the links between water scarcity, foodproduction, food security, and environmental sustainability.Research to improve this understanding would have high payoffs.

Shortage Management Modeling for Urban Water Supply Systems

Abstract: Water shortages throughout the world have shaped the development of demand management and supply enhancement options to improve water supply reliability. A shortage management model based on two-stage linear programming is presented as a tool to integrate available water resources options while accounting for costs and hydrologic uncertainties. To illustrate the approach, the model is applied to a simplification of the East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD) system. The model is expanded in several case studies to demonstrate its strengths in incorporating the effects of seasonal shortages and uncertainties relating to long-term and short-term management options. Conclusions regarding the effects of uncertainties on shortage management are presented. A special examination is made of conditions encouraging economical development of dual distribution system.

Second Water Utilities Data Book: Asian and Pacific Region

Abstract: The Second Water Utilities Data Book for the Asian and Pacific Region builds on our experience from the rst Data Book. It provides information from 50 water utilities in 31 DMCs and is based largely on 1995 data. Additional features include the results of consumer surveys, a section on private sector participation, comparisons with information in the rst Data Book, and greater analytical depth. It is expected that the Data Book will provide a broad perspective of water utility services and institutions in the Asian and Paci c region to the stakeholders. Utilities should also find it useful as a benchmark against which to measure their own performance. Citation McIntosh, Arthur C.; Yñiguez, Cesar E.. 1997. Second Water Utilities Data Book: Asian and Pacific Region. © Asian Development Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/11540/4866. License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. Print ISBN 971-561-125-7

Water and Land Resources and Global Food Supply

Abstract: The world population is expected to grow to 7.7 billion in 2020, from 5.3 billion in 1993 (UN, 1996). Although the latest population projections represent a slowdown from past estimates, the large absolute increase in population raises serious concerns about how food demand will be met in the next decades, especially in the context of a possibly stagnant or even decreasing stock of natural resources. These concerns have escalated sharply in recent years, in the face of dramatic increases in world cereal prices in 1996, combined with declining cereal stocks, and the simultaneous appearance of several widely read publications presenting the possibility of a starving world in the next century, unable to meet growing food demands from a deteriorating natural resource base (Brown, 1995; Tyler, 1995; Brown and Kane, 1994). In this paper, we examine the prospects for global food supply and demand for the year 2020, in the light of the two most often identified natural resource constraints, land and water. We first briefly summarize recent trends in area, yield and production for cereal crops, the key staple crops for most of the world, describe the IMPACT global food projections model and present an overview of food demand and supply projections. We then ask whether land and water constraints will pose serious threats to long-term cereal production growth. In particular, we assess the effects of land degradation and land conversion to urban uses on agricultural production and the effect of increasing water scarcity on future global food supply. For the latter assessment, we develop projections of global water demand until 2020 that are consistent with the underlying assumptions in the global food projections. We conclude with implications for land and water policy.

Water and Armed Conflict in the Middle East — Fantasy or Reality?

Abstract: In recent years many people have claimed that, as a result of increasing water scarcity, water wars are likely to occur in the future. This chapter argues that such a view is too simplistic. Although greater pressures on available water resources will occur, it is essential to examine the actual uses to which any water is put. In most dryland countries, over 75% of all water usage is for irrigation purposes. In the Middle East, irrigation application rates are high with the result that in extreme cases 3,000 m3 of water can be utilized to produce one tonne of wheat. If water is transferred from these low value agricultural uses to more valuable urban/industrial usage, ample water is available to supply the needs of most dryland nations well into the third decade of the 21st century. Expected urban/industrial needs for all the countries of the Middle East are calculated using ‘minimum’ and ‘maximum’ water demand concepts. Therefore, water wars are unlikely as they would be fought over low value irrigation water. In effect, this means water used to irrigate food or fibre drops. All of these commodities are available on the world market, which means that money can easily be a substitute for water. Water conflicts short of war can still arise, with ‘water piracy’ being an interesting case. Israel provides good examples of this type of water poaching, both along the Yarmouk River and on the Palestinian West Bank. Here, with the presence and threat of superior military power, Israel has been able to stop societies with weaker military powers from using their own water resources. Gravity ensures that the water will flow down to Israeli-controlled land where the water can be utilized.

Water Resources and Conflict: Examples from the Middle East

Abstract: The Middle East has often been viewed as the best example of a region where disputes over water resources can lead to violent conflict. Indeed, many authors note that water was a major cause of the 1967 war between Israel and its Arab neighbours. Despite the rhetoric, there is little evidence that water has caused armed conflict in the region. This chapter briefly reviews the literature on water resources and conflict, focuses on the role urbanization may play in exacerbating future conditions of water scarcity, and then discusses water resource conflicts in the context of the relationship between Israel and the Palestinians. The key to resolving disputes over water lies in redressing the inequities with respect to water allocations and water rights. Despite the recent peace agreement which included provisions for water management there is little evidence that these inequities will be redressed. Disputes over water will continue in the near future, but water wars remain unlikely.

Water Development and the Environment

Abstract: Water use since the dawn of human history has increased steadily, and the current trend is no exception For many reasons it would be a difficult task to alleviate the water crisis significantly in many parts of the world within a reasonable timeframe Environmental and social aspects of water development have become important factors to consider in recent decades, but many serious methodological and operational constraints have to be overcome before environmentally-sound water management can become a reality There are many fundamental problems with the environmental assessment procedures This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the present status of operationalizingthe concept of sustainable water developmentin the real world

The Scarcity Of Water, Emerging Legal And Policy Responses

Abstract: Part 1 State of the problem: The global water crisis - the major issue of the 21st century. A growing and explosive problem, H.L.F. Saeijs, M.J. van Berkel Water scarcity - challenges for the future, M. Falkenmark. Part 2 International Water Law: Water scarcity - institutional and legal responses, S.C.McCaffrey Interstate conflicts on water scarcity , A. Kiss The protection of international watercourses as sources of fresh water in the interest of future generations, M.O. Kroes Securing access to safe drinking water through trade and international migration, P.J.I.M. de Waart. Part 3 Water scarcity in selected river basins: Water scarcity and the Nile basin, J.W. Dellapenna Water as a source of international conflicts in the Middle East, H. Donkers Middle East water problems - the Jordan River, S.C. McCaffrey Water scarcity and water managements in Africa, C.O. Okidi. Part 4 Water scarcity in selected regions:Allocation of water rights in the United States, D. Tarlock Liability in Tort for the detrimental use of fresh water resources under Dutch law, in domestic and international cases, J.M. van Dunne Liability for damage to river beds in the Netherlands, G. Betlem Disputing water rights - scarcity of water in Nepal hill irrigation, F. von Benda-Beckmann et al. Part 5 Water scarcity and Economic Law: Balancing between free trade in water and the protection of water resources in GATT, E.J. de Haan Water conflicts between NAFTA countries - Mexico and the United States, R. Sanchez Privatization of drinking water supply in Europe, L. Hancher.

Urbanization and Water Conservation in Las Vegas Valley, Nevada

Abstract: By the year 2010 southern Nevada, which is one of the fastest-growing urban centers in the West, will have committed nearly 100% of its water resources. Early in its history, Las Vegas developed a reputation for high per capita water use compared to other major cities in the arid West. This arose from a belief by its residents that the valley was situated on an inexhaustible supply of water, enticements by the state to drill wells for urban development, the attraction of tourists, and a lack of enforcement of passed or existing laws. The first water crisis in the 1940s was averted by allowing the principal aquifer to be overdrafted. Overdrafting of the aquifer has led to geologic problems for the valley and its residents. The second major water crisis was averted in the 1970s by the increasing availability of Colorado River water to area residents. Metering, local ordinances, research, and educational programming are impacting water use by addressing the problems of overdrafting and conservation.

Water Markets and Traditional Water Values: Merging Commodity and Community Perspectives

Abstract: The emergence of markets for water and water rights in the western region of the United States has been a source of significant conflict for decades now, particularly in locales in which water markets encounter the water values oftraditional native American and Hispanic communities. The notion that water is a commodity subject to monetary valuation and trade is commonly viewed as directly antagonistic to these culturally-based perspectives. Similar conflict is arising elsewhere in the world also as a new policy consensus that water should be recognized as an economic good emerges. This article examines the basis of this conflict and asserts that much of the conflict can be traced to misunderstanding of terminology and lack of respect for the water management practices of the traditional communities. Traditional communities faced with water scarcity have always treated water as an economic good, i.e., a substance necessitating tradeoff decisions in times of drought or shortage. Otherwise, they wou...

Management of transboundary water resources for water security; principles, approaches and State practice

Abstract: Increasing water scarcity and stress are leading many nations to securing supplies for present and future water uses. National objectives are more and more pointed towards water security and the close links with food security and other macro-economic and sectoral aspects. Water security is seen as an important aspect of national and regional security and international positions on water often have a political dimension that reflects broader national objectives. Available options for sharing transboundary resources are established on the basis of general legal principles such as equitable utilization and absence of appreciable harmful transboundary effects downstream and others such as established historical utilization. These principles and doctrines must be fully understood by the advisers serving on the negotiating teams of international water treaties and agreements. From these perspectives, the paper recognizes the importance of the structural and strategic uncertainty in international relations. Co-ordination or harmonization of national policy, as an integrated part of, and administrated under existing frameworks for, regional co-operation are proposed as realistic, efficient and practicable approaches, alternative to more intensive co-operation and complicated planning and coordinating mechanisms. The article also highlights the need for training of legal specialists in countries which contemplate negotiating or re-negotiating water treaties or agreements.

Redesign and modernization of the mexican water quality monitoring network

Abstract: Mexico is a large developing country, much of which is arid and semiarid. With a population of more than 81 million, Mexico is confronted with growing water scarcity and serious pollution of much of its surface water The National Water Commission (Comision Nacional del Agua—CNA) has embarked on a major program of modernization of water management. The water quality program, now consisting of 564 surface water stations (plus 239 groundwater stations), has no strategic design, has major data gaps, is not representative of important areas, is often unreliable, does not contain data for many current issues such as organic contaminants, and suffers from out-of-date or lack of facilities. Because the existing network is not representative of the range of issues for which data are needed, network redesign began from first principles rather than as an optimization of the existing network. The new program is built around client needs, and uses four components—a primary network of some 200 stations that ar...

Water for a Changing Global Community

Abstract: This six-volume collection contains the papers presented at the 27th Congress of the International Association of Hydraulic Research on Water for a Changing Global Community. The Proceedings covers four basic themes: 1) Managing water: coping with scarcity and abundance; 2) environmental and coastal hydraulics: protecting the aquatic habitats; 3) groundwater: an endangered resource; and 4) energy and water: sustainable development. Each theme contains a keynote address and a combination of technical papers generated by topic convenors and the general call for papers. The base themes are complemented by papers presented in the John F. Kennedy Student Paper Competition, and by summaries of the following Specialty Seminars: 1) multidirectional waves and their interaction with structures; 2) modelling of turbulent flows; 3) wind energy and windflow around structures; 4) continuing education and training; 5)management of hydraulic research; and 6) hydroinformatics for control, management, and risk assessment.

Application of water balance models to different climatic regions in China for water resources assessment

Abstract: Uneven precipitation in space and time together with mismanagement and lack of knowledge about existing water resources, have caused water shortage problems for water supply to large cities and irrigation in many regions of China. There is an urgent need for the efficient use and regional planning of water resources. For these purposes, the monthly variation of discharges should be made available. In this paper, a simple water balance modelling approach was applied to seven catchments (385–20002) for water resources assessment. Six catchments were chosen from the humid region in southern China and one catchment from the semi-arid and semi-humid region in northern China. The results are satisfactory. It is suggested that the proposed modelling approach provides a valuable tool in the hands of planners and designers of water resources.

The pending ‘water crisis’

Abstract: An apparent abundance of water on earth would indicate that the quantity of water available for human use is meeting the needs of society. However, recent investigations conclude that there are many areas where the demands are growing beyond water availability and problems arise from intensive withdrawals, mismanagement, or simply low availability. Water resources planners in the next century are very likely to encounter a new and different kind of scarcity; a scarcity that cannot be solved by engineering measures but calls for finding an intricate balance between the interests of a number of actors involved. Water demand is no longer a vital necessity but is one of the claims to be subjected to (political) decision making. Managing the demand of water in the framework of the objectives of a national socio-economic development plan is a challenge in the water planning process. Many technical, legislative and institutional tools are available to support this process. Such planning requires strong mechanisms and political involvement at the national level and a strong social support at the local level.

Water and Conflict in the Middle East.

Abstract: : This monograph assesses the potential for conflict in the Middle East as a result of water scarcity. it is guided by the Home-Dixon model linking the contributions of environmental scarcity to violent conflict. The monograph begins with a general overview of the water scarcity issue in the Middle East. It then examines the analytical framework developed by Homer-Dixon to gain an understanding of the contributions of decreasing quality and quantity of renewable resources population growth, and unequal resource access to the development of environmental scarcity. The framework is further used to establish the linkage between environmental scarcity and the outbreak of violent conflict. With an understanding of the relationship between environmental scarcity and violent conflict developed, the monograph investigates the three major Middle East water scarcity regions of the Jordan. Tigris-Euphrates, and Nile river basins. Investigation of these three basin regions focuses on the factors of water quality and quantity, population growth, and water access. Additionally, history of water related conflict in each basin is also reviewed. The monograph concludes with an assessment that the Jordan river basin is the region most likely to experience violent conflict in the future as a result of water scarcity.

Water reserving method on riverbed and river floor

Abstract: PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED: To correspond to water shortage in a dry season and to contribute to water control by catching water in a river and reserving it by burying a large number of large water reservoirs connected to each other on a river bed and under the ground of a river floor. SOLUTION: Large reservoirs 4 are buried on a riverbed 2 and under the ground of a river floor, and the water reservoirs 4 are connected to each other by connecting pipes. Thereafter, water of a river 1 is caught and reserved in the water reservoir 4 by installing an water intake pipe 6 on an upper part of the water reservoir 4 and by making the water intake pipe 6 face the inside of the river 1. Additionally, it is desirable that this water intake pipe 6 is formed of a flexible material and a net to avoid contamination of a foreign matter is affixed on a water intake port. Consequently, it is possible to correspond to water shortage in a dry season and to contribute to water control to prevent a damage of a flood with a reservoir provided on the upstream of the river 1.

Water scarcity in river basins as a security problem.

Abstract: This report looks at how water scarcity triggers intensifies and generates regional instability and other security problems The introduction emphasizes the importance of water its unique characteristics as a natural resource and the causes of the proliferation of water disputes The next section presents an analytical model that defines "scarcity" and "security" and outlines the variables that cause water scarcity (increased demand decreased supply and impeded access to available supplies) the variables that affect the stability of institutional structures and the link to security Then the following case studies are used to illustrate how various factors interact with water scarcity to threaten security: 1) the Jordan River Basin where water scarcity combines with catalytic conditions caused by a lack of cooperation sustained by historical tensions; 2) the Nile River Basin where scarcity exists but the level of conflict does not match that in the first example; and 3) the Mekong River where existing water-sharing mechanisms may be unable to defuse the tensions caused by water scarcity The report ends by offering policy recommendations that call for promoting education improving living conditions protecting human and ecological health allocating sufficient resources to address water scarcity and creating international water regimes

Water scarcity in Malta

Abstract: The water problem in Malta reflects to a significant extent water problems in the rest of the Mediterranean region. Rising water demands have resulted in increasing levels of production. Groundwater resources have been exploited beyond their sustainable yield resulting in water shortages, and salinity levels in groundwater, and ultimately tapwater, have risen to unacceptable levels for human health, and in some cases agriculture and industry. Increasing levels of pollution, mainly from agro-chemicals, have also caused a deterioration in groundwater quality, resulting in unacceptable concentrations of nitrate compounds in tapwater for certain settlments. The competition for good quality water often leads to conflict between consumers and between consumers and the Government. To try and curb groundwater extraction and the poor quality of tapwater, the Maltese Government has resorted to large scale desalination by Reverse Osmosis. Unfortunately the nature of the distribution system is such that there is an inequity in the quantity and quality of water supplied. Certain settlements receive little or no water, usually of relatively poor quality, for long periods, while others receive large amounts, usually of the relatively good quality Reverse Osmosis water. These problems and their causes are discussed and solutions are briefly considered.

Task force reports on environmental change and security. Water scarcity in river basins as a security problem.

Abstract: Demand for water is accelerating with the growth in populations and economies and is being depleted by poor water management degradation and neglect. The consequence is threats to human health ecological health and national security. This article examines the role of water scarcity in shared river basins in causing and amplifying regional instability and other security problems. The case studies pertain to the Jordan River Basin the Nile River Basin and the Mekong River Basin. These case studies illustrate the variety of factors that interact with water scarcity to threaten national and regional security. The UN addressed the seriousness of water scarcity by initiating a global fresh water assessment that will be submitted to the General Assembly in 1997. By 2025 about 3 billion people in 52 countries may be affected by chronic water scarcity. River basins historically have sustained prosperous and productive societies. Fresh water comprises only 2.5% of the Earths total water supply and 79% is locked in polar ice caps and glaciers. Only 0.000008% of the Earths water is readily accessible for basic human use. Water scarcity arises when demand exceeds supply. A security threat is a threat to values sufficient to instigate violence. Values include national sovereignty territory public health economic prosperity and cultural identity. Threats may be actual or real. The potential for violence can also be a trigger for cooperation. Water scarcity results from increased demand decreased supply and impeded access to available supplies. Water scarcity contributes to health problems civil strife economic crises and institutional failures. Policies should consider the particular physical geopolitical and cultural conditions of each case and pertain to promoting education improving living conditions providing sufficient water resources and establishing international water regimes.