Showing papers on "Westernization published in 2016"

Paradox in marriage values and behavior in contemporary China

Abstract: Despite a rapidly growing body of literature on marriage behaviors in China, we know very little about the changes or continuities of marriage values that accompany or underlie these behavioral tra...

"(East) Asia" as a Platform for Debate: Grouping and Bioethics.

Abstract: This article examines the use of the notions of “Asian” and “East Asian” in definitions of bioethics. Using examples from East Asia, I argue that the verbal Asianization of bioethics is based on the notion of “Asia” as a family metaphor and serves as a platform of bioethical debate, networking, and political change. I maintain that the use of “Asia” and “East Asia” to shape bioethics is not so much a sign of inward-looking regionalism, but an attempt to build bridges among Asian countries, while putting up a common stance against what educated elites interpret as undesirable global trends of Westernization through bioethics. Using the notions of “grouping” and “segmentary systems” to show the performative nature of characterizations of (East) Asian bioethics, allowing users to mark regional identity, share meanings, take political positions, and network. Deploying Peter Haas’s notion of “epistemic communities,” I argue that academic and political elites translate “home” issues into “Asia speak,” while at the same time, introducing and giving shape to “new” bioethical issues. Although the “Asianisms” and group-marking activities of Asian networks of bioethics are ideological, thereby engaging in the politics of in/exclusion, they succeed in putting politically sensitive topics on the agenda.

Sex Ideologies in China: Examining Interprovince Differences

Abstract: In recent decades, premarital sex, extramarital sex, and homosexuality have become increasingly visible in China, leading scholars to claim that a national "sex revolution" is under way. However, China's internal sociocultural diversity calls this nation-level generalization into question. How do sex ideologies vary across China's distinct provinces? To what extent are interprovince variations in sex ideologies associated with distinct macrolevel social factors in China? In this research, data from the 2010 China General Social Survey and the 2011 Chinese Statistics Yearbook were analyzed using multilevel models to test four contending theories of interprovince differences in sex ideologies in China: modernization, Westernization, deindustrialization, and the "rice theory." The modernization theory was unsupported by the results, as socioeconomic development is not significantly associated with sex ideologies. Higher levels of deindustrialization and Westernization were associated with less traditional sex ideologies, but the strength of association varied across the domains of premarital sex, extramarital sex, and homosexuality. The rice theory was consistently supported, as the distinction between rice and wheat agriculture explained up to 30% of the province-level variance in sex ideologies. The findings underline the roles of both long-standing geographic differences and recent social changes in shaping China's ideational landscape of sex.

From Islamophobia to Westophobia: The Long Road to Radical Islamism:

Abstract: Islamophobia or the fear of Islam in Christian West is as old as Islam itself, and Westophobia or antipathy towards the West is its younger sibling born in the wake of European colonization of Islamdom. During its high noon, Islamdom ignored the West, because the West could hardly provide anything novel or useful to enhance the strength and prosperity of the caliphate. There was thus no Westophobia in the Islamic quarter until the colonial era, but there was certainly an undercurrent of military hostility and a superiority complex because Islamdom then was a hegemon. Colonialism reversed everything. The humiliation that Islam and Muslims endured politically, economically and culturally under European colonization created contradictory responses ranging from Westernization, Westoxification and Islamization. However, the failure of the Western secular models to promote democracy and development with justice and equity, and persisting grievances against a West-manufactured world order, provoked a wave of Westophobia which in turn has produced in the West a more pernicious brand of Islamophobia. Amidst this spiralling negativism, a new generation of Islamists are becoming extremely radicalized.

The Postsecular Turn in Education: Lessons from the Mindfulness Movement and the Revival of Confucian Academies

Abstract: It is part of a global trend today that new relationships are being forged between religion and society, between spirituality and materiality, giving rise to announcements that we live in a ‘postsecular’ or ‘desecularized’ world. Taking up two educational movements, the mindfulness movement in the West and the revival of Confucian education in China, this paper examines what and how postsecular orientations and sensibilities penetrate educational discourses and practices in different cultural contexts. We compare the two movements to reveal a new quality of hybrid modernization in that they react, in different ways, to certain pathologies that are identified as consequences of secular modernity. Burnout syndrome, the sense of a spiritual void, but also the loss of a spiritual and cultural identity are being perceived as correlating to a one-sided push towards a modernity that emphasizes secular rationalization over mindfulness and Westernization over cultural particularity. The two case studies mark a critical insight on the present condition and limits of secularism and highlights the ongoing negotiations of values and modes of self-cultivation in schools. In an increasingly pluralistic world, the entanglement of the secular, spiritual, religious and wisdom traditions provides the opportunity to rethink education as a creative realm and an impossible possibility to re-engage the minds and lives of those in the hybrid pedagogical time.

Between nationalisation and globalisation: male same-sex politics in post-war Japan

Abstract: This thesis employs an approach of discourse analysis on male homosexuality in postwar Japan from the viewpoint of the tense relations between Japanese cultural nationalism and the globalisation/Westernisation, along with the shifts of discourses of sexuality in the United States and the UK. Through analysing the discourses of sexuality in post-war Japan, I will theoretically indicate the historical and political relationship between problems of gender and sexuality, and national problems such as national identity between Japanese and Western cultures, ideal image of the nation, and its modern development. Firstly, I argue the works of Mishima Yukio (1925-1970), who is one of the representative writers in post-war Japan, especially famous for his gaythemed works and far-right political activism including his attempt of coup d’etat. Then, I explore the political dynamics of gay shame in Japan, focusing on Togo Ken (1932-2012), a pioneer of Japanese gay activism who had challenged national elections since 1971 as an openly homosexual candidate. Next, I discuss how the AIDS crisis has changed the discourses of sexuality and the sense of national and cultural borders in Japan. I then discuss the Japanese homonormativity in the 2000s, analogous to Lisa Duggan’s new homonormativity in the US context. Finally, I analyse Japanese ‘LGBT’ political phenomena under the transnational influence of the Obama administration’s LGBT-friendly policy in the contemporary Japan, and point out problems under the influences of ‘global’ LGBT activism in contemporary Japanese society.

The Rastakhiz Party and Pahlavism: the beginnings of state anti-Westernism in Iran

Abstract: The historiography of Pahlavi Iran has been unduly influenced, in the words of Cyrus Schayegh, by ‘a methodological statist’ paradigm based on the assumption that the state, dominating society, strove to implement radical Westernization while society’s role was passive and reactive—and that society did not exercise substantial influence on Pahlavi policy-making, in particular during the period covered here, 1967–1979 Consequently, a large gap between state and society emerged and in 1979 the monarchy was overthrown This article argues that this paradigm needs revision given its inadequate attention to the changes the shah made in the state’s discourses on Westernization and Iranian authenticity and national identity in response to a growing societal and intellectual backlash to Pahlavi Westernization The Rastakhiz Party and its publications played the key role in this emerging Pahlavi anti-Westernism The article shows that these changes were more substantial and impactful on the state’s discou

Modernization and the Semi-Periphery: Western Influence on Modern-Day LGBTQIA* Rights in Russia, Japan, and Iran

Abstract: This thesis seeks to identify and investigate the reason for the change in sexual values experienced by Russia, Japan, and Iran from the middle of the nineteenth to the early twentieth century. I argue that semi-periphery nations exposed to Eurocentric globalization and associated " modernist " pressures around the turn of the nineteenth century, in attempting to conform to dominant Western European Victorian ideals, ultimately adopted the accompanying social conservatism and increased standards of heteronormative expectations. Modern-day policies and norms in these countries still reflect this conservatism and heteronormativity. My analysis of these case studies confirms this argument and shows that mechanisms of foucauldian notions of governmentality and world-systems theory factored into the transfer of norms from heteronormative homoeros to strictly heteronormative systems. iv Acknowledgments

British Conservatism and the Indian Revolt: The Annexation of Awadh and the Consequences of Liberal Empire, 1856–1858

Abstract: This article examines how the East India Company's 1856 annexation of the Indian Kingdom of Awadh informed British Conservative responses to the Indian Revolt in 1857 and 1858. Addressing scholarship on Britain's reaction to the revolt and political engagement with Indian empire, this study reveals that Conservatives interpreted this event with a veneration for locality and prescription. Criticism from company officials and Awadh's deposed royal family informed Conservative perceptions that British exploitation and westernization were responsible for military rebellion and popular upheaval. Principally, this reflected Conservative skepticism regarding liberal modernity as well as support for prescribed aristocratic, propertied, and established church interests in Britain. Their response, expressed in Parliament and supported in conservative periodicals, was the 1858 Queen's Proclamation authored by Edward Smith-Stanley, the 14th Earl of Derby's Conservative government. The proclamation established a lasting imperial framework which defined the crown's obligation to uphold India's political, social, and cultural differences and separation from Britain. Future Conservatives strengthened British views of India's distinctiveness by supporting perceived traditional leaders and customs over uniform western administration and education.

Between anti-Westernization and Islamism: Turkey’s ‘Islamic’ vision in Cyprus?

Abstract: This paper seeks to analyse the position of Cyprus within the geopolitical vision and broader worldview of the National Outlook Movement (Milli Gorus Hareketi) and especially of the National Salvation Party (MSP). The importance of this particular Party lies on the fact that it participated in the coalition government that made the decision to militarily intervene in the island in 1974. The paper’s principal focus is on the Islamic criticism of Turkey’s Westernization and the development of a comprehensive programme of Islamic transformation. Drawing from the above-mentioned axes, and from the context of the MSP’s geopolitical vision, Cyprus and the Cyprus problem, as well as their impact on the political stance of the MSP, are analysed.

Eastward Expansion of Western Learning: A study of Westernisation of China’s modern education by Chinese government overseas-study scholarships

Abstract: This article aims to trace back the history of how Chinese Government attempted to strengthen its national power by learning from the USA, Western Europe and Japan since the mid-nineteenth century, as well as to analyse the influences Westernisation had on the development of China’s modern education. In this process, the Chinese Government overseas-study scholarships played a key role in speeding up China’s learning from the West, and assisted numerous students in experiencing Western modernisation while they studied abroad. By examining this historical retrospect, some findings are concluded from this research. First, several significant conflicts between China and foreign countries stimulated Chinese officials deeply to learn the knowledge and skills of Western navy, military, sciences, technologies and philosophies. Second, Chinese scholars also began to reflect and criticise the influence of these Westernised reforms on Chinese traditional culture and values.

Representing Russia: Luxury and Diplomacy at the Razumovsky Palace in Vienna, 1803–1815

Abstract: This essay explores the role of luxury in the social and diplomatic life of Count Andrey Razumovsky (1752–1836), Russian ambassador to Austria during the Napoleonic Wars. Focusing on Razumovsky’s making of an embassy during the heyday of his estate, roughly 1803 to 1815, it examines his cultivation of English landscape gardening, neoclassical architecture, and Viennese music in relation to ideas of European representational culture and Russian Westernization. Through his engagement with horticulture, architecture, and music, Razumovsky displayed not only his wealth and status but also his cosmopolitan sensibility. His representational efforts emphasize the interrelated nature of private and professional concerns among early nineteenth-century diplomats. They also highlight the plurality of actors mobilized in diplomatic representation. In addition to the artists and musicians in his service, Razumovsky’s first wife, Maria Elizabeth von Thun-Hohenstein (1764–1806), contributed to the palace’s life and design. Her activities as salonniere and political confidante illustrate how closely private and professional spheres overlapped.

Indigenous autonomy, community-based research, and development aid: Sumaq kawsay in three epistemic scenarios

Abstract: In this paper, the future of Indigenous autonomy and Indigenous community- based research is illustrated by analyzing re- Westernization, de- Westernization, and decoloniality in relation to the regeneration of the Indigenous glocal (global/local) concept of sumaq kawsay (“living well” in Quechua). The regeneration of sumaq kawsay as a new geopolitical and cultural polycentric and multipolar world is examined from an Indigenous studies decolonial perspective and an Indigenous Andean campesino (peasant) community- based perspective. Sumaq kawsay has encouraged an unexpected pan- Latin American perspective that supports decoloniality and its epistemic pluriversity as an alternative scenario to “progress” and the business approach of development aid embedded within re- /de- Westernization.

The Dynamics of the Inculturation of Mahikari in Western Europe

Abstract: The symbolism of the phoenix has in Japan often been transferred from the divine emperor to the leader of a new Japanese religion. In rising from his or her ashes, the leader is believed to encompass the whole universe. This provides an impulse toward mission beyond the islands of Japan. Over the past decades, many a new Japanese religion has developed missionary activities in the West. This presence of new Japanese religions in the West calls for a different interpretative framework from that which was developed within the Japanese context. The religious vacuums that emerged after the Meiji Restoration and after World War II, the demographic and social changes that accompanied the rapid social growth, and the identity crisis that followed the process of internationalization and Westernization are of little use in attempting to understand the appeal of some of the new Japanese religions in the West. The social, economic, and religious realities differ radically. In The Social Dimensions of Sectarianism Brian Wilson juxtaposes the social functions that new religions fulfill in Japan with the individualistic orientation of the West, and questions how the dispositions of individuals are changed to match the particular focus of these new and alien religions. Why and how do people accept a redefinition of their needs and deficiencies in terms of a foreign ideology and world view (cf. WILSON 1990, p. 218)? In coming to the West, the newJapanese religions are themselves confronted with a new reality with which they are called to interact. This process of interaction between a religion that emerged within a certain cultural context, and a new culture, has come to be called "inculturation." It is usually applied within a Christian context to denote a particular, reciprocal interaction between religion and culture in which a mutually critical relationship evolves that enriches both. Religions may, however, also refuse this form of profound inculturation and limit

Effect of westernization on oral health among college students of Udaipur City, India.

Abstract: Background There is overwhelming evidence that periodontal disease and dental caries affect the majority of populations and that western culture and lifestyle may have a profound influence on oral health, especially in adults The present study was performed to determine the effect of westernization on the oral health of college students of Udaipur City, Rajasthan

A variation on forced migration: Wilhelm Peters (Prussia via Britain to Turkey) and Muzafer Sherif (Turkey to the United States).

Abstract: In 1933 the Turkish Republic formally offered university positions to 30 German-speaking academics who were dismissed with the coming to power of the National Socialist Government. That initial number went up to 56 with the inclusion of the technical assistants. By 1948 the estimated total had increased to 199. Given renewable five-year contracts with salaries substantially higher than their Turkish counterparts, the foreign emigres were to implement the westernization program of higher education. The ten year-old secular Turkish Republic's extensive social reforms had encompassed the adoption of the Latin alphabet, and equal rights for women, removing gender bias in hiring. Such a high concentration of emigre academics in one institution, "the highest anywhere in the world," provides a unique opportunity to study a subject which has been neglected. In this article two cases in psychology will be examined: Wilhelm Peters (1880-1963), who came, via Britain, to Istanbul in 1936 from the University of Jena in Germany, and Muzafer Sherif (1906-1988) who went to the United States from Ankara University in 1945. The purpose of the comparative analysis is to identify the features that are specific to the German experience, and those that are shared and underlie translocation in science within the multifaceted complexity of the process of forced migration.

Industrialization and revolution in iran: forced progress or unmet expectation?

Abstract: One suggested cause of the revolution in Iran is that the modernization program imposed by the Shah was too rapid for the people of Iran to accept. Implicit in this explanation is a belief that Iran was experiencing significant social and economic progress under the Shah's government. An alternative, minority viewpoint, and the one to be argued here, is that revolution came to Iran because the Shah failed to modernize rapidly enough. Despite a superficial appearance of modernism fostered by rising oil revenues, the Iranian economic and social infrastructure was found increasingly inadequate to meet the rising expectations of the Iranian people. Modernization, or Westernization, or industrialization, however illdefined the concept, had come to be equated by Iranians with the material benefits and high standards of living enjoyed by North American and Western European nations. It was not because the Shah's government forced upon people more largesse than they were accustomed to that they rebelled. Rather it was a failure to meet rapidly rising expectations, rational or otherwise, a failure to deliver immediately in full measure or even in partial measure sufficient to encourage realistic hope of progress toward obtaining the material benefits of a modern industrial nation, that contributed to increasing dissatisfaction with the Shah's government and to a climate of public opinion conducive to revolution. The standard of living in Iran did increase during the early 1970s, when per capita income rose from $180 per year before the OPEC price increase to $810 in

La comunicación en clave latinoamericana

Abstract: In pointing out Latin America as a distinct locus of enunciation for Communication it is not intended to materialize a kind of epistemological privilege for this territory. It is to explore and exploit the fact that the region synthesizes a structural placement from which it is possible to carry out a non-Eurocentric reinterpretation of the history of the world, and promoting the dismantling of the mechanisms of compulsory westernization to which the world surrendered after the integration of America to planetary geography. Feasible, therefore, from this part of the globe to raise a new alter(n)ative communication, first in the epistemological-theoretical level and then the praxis.

Westernization of Russian culture by media products

Abstract: © Serials Publications.Relevance of the problem is determined by the fact that in the era of globalization western culture constantly influences the Russian culture. Mainly via different mass cultural products, for example movies, television. The article is aimed at the study of the examples of positive and negative influence of westernization on Russian culture, including language culture, and the means of its implementation. The main method of the research was studying theoretical information about this topic and the examples illustrating this phenomenon. As the result of the research it was found out that most of the researches consider westernization as a negative process and. They think that it threatens original Russian culture as well as rich Russian language. This article can be interesting to a wide range of readers, students, cultural scientists, linguists, political scientists while studying modern process going on with traditional Russian culture.

The Influence of Foreign Borrowings in Business and Tourist Vocabulary on Student's Lsp Learning

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Development of international business and cooperation, widening of communication boards brought to the borrowing of foreign words, lifestyle and customs. No borders to communicate with people from other countries, the availability of foreign intellectual and cultural resources' exchange, the prevalence of cultural ideals allows every member of society to form their own opinion about different countries and standards of living, as well as to adopt the habits and characteristics. Active expansion of the boundaries of business communication with representatives of different countries, as well as the expansion of interpersonal contacts leads to the borrowing of foreign language vocabulary and influence on the formation of the cultural values of the society. One of the most striking processes taking place at the moment, due to the expansion of cultural exchange and dialogue is the process of westernization. Westernization is understood as the spread of western-European way of life and its borrowing in economics, politics, education and culture (Latouche, 1996). Role of westernization is discussed worldwide and Russia is not an exception. A lot of scientists consider the role of westernization as negative (Polomoshnov, 2015). Even supporters of Westernization, such as the American political scientist S. Huntington (2003) agrees that "if in the early stages of change westernization contributes to modernization; in the next phase modernization causes dewesternization and rise of autochthonous culture>> (Pokaninova, 2014). Special attention is paid to the role of borrowings from the English language penetrating different spheres of life, including the sphere of business and tourism. Recent years are characterized by a large number of scientific works devoted to this subject. For example, Bykova (2000) studied one-word financial and economic terms, borrowed from English into Russian in 90-s of the XX century; Belan (2009) examined the main features of formation of new terminological systems on the material of English and Russian terminology of international tourism vocabulary; Vinogradova (2011) studied English and Russian tourism terminology in synchronic and diachronic aspects. In this paper the authors tried to investigate the influence of foreign borrowings in business and tourism vocabulary on student's LSP learning. The study consists of four parts: the first part is a literature review; the second part contains methodology of the research. The following part contains the results of the research and conclusions. And in the last part the theoretical and practical significance of the work are presented. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK The study used general scientific and private (linguistic) methods. For the study there were selected and analyzed the most popular borrowed business and tourist words according to free Internet resources. In this paper we attempt to find out how the westernization of Russian culture takes place in business and tourist vocabulary formation. Another aim of our research is to investigate in which cases the lexical borrowings are admissible, and in which they violate the natural order of the native language and begin to threaten its existence. Finally the role of foreign borrowings in teaching business and tourism vocabulary to the students was studied. In our research we referred to the scientific works of Voronina E.B., Sabirova D.R. in the field of professional trainings, cultural aspects of education, international brand's nominations, word building in the field of advertisements to analyze the problems of foreign languages influence on different social areas. A lot of scientific works are devoted to the problem of foreign words borrowings. Many outstanding scientists as Krysin L.P., Tomilova and others worked in this field; however, many questions still require a special study. RESULTS The development of science, culture and business creates its own special words to describe the objects of study. …

The Development of Western Classical Piano Culture in Postwar Asia

Abstract: The Development of Western Classical Piano Culture in Postwar Asia Yejin Cho School of Music, BYU Master of Arts The purpose of this study is to explore the past, present and future of the development of Western piano culture in Northeast Asia and the musical, social, political and economic facets thereof. Western piano was first introduced to general public as part of the Westernization process during and after World War II in Asia. During the second half of the twentieth century, Asian piano culture has experienced a period of rapid development and mass popularization along with dramatic cultural, economic and technical developments. Quantifiable evidences for this are given in the number of competition winners and graduates of prestigious institutions with Asian heritage. Piano sales and manufacture of Asian companies gives further testament to the popularity of piano in Asia. Finally, the paper acknowledges the achievements identified and suggests ways in which Asia could become a fully independent culture central for piano in the future, with a close look at factors such as the diversity and quality of education programs and syllabi, social norms formed as a result of rapid modernization, and the constituent ratio of Asian decision-makers in eminent music organization.

Masculinity and cultural conflict in Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart

Abstract: The African people have varying behaviours, mannerisms, beliefs, thought patterns and way of interaction and all of these differences formed their culture and impacted their way of life. However, with the coming of the Europeans to Africa came cultural infiltration, pollution as well as alteration. This research analyses Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (1958) from the angle of masculinity and culture clash (traditional vs. western) as brought about by westernisation. The method of investigation is analytical and descriptive, using the formalist approach: that is looking at the actions, events, sentences and interactions of the characters in order to identify and discuss how males are portrayed, paying attention to issues of cultural realism, behaviours, actions and statements of the characters. The findings of the research confirmed that African viewpoint of masculinity and culture tends to be opposed to that of the Europeans, as the actions and behaviours appropriate to a man in each society tend to differ. This led to different clashes from religious, cultural, ideological, to social beliefs. The research reached the conclusion that cultural clashes exist in the work and contributed to the final play-out of the story, where the traditional belief system had to make way for western ones; making things (cultural beliefs) fall apart. The research reveals that the male characters have both cultural and individual masculine idiosyncrasies and that the complexities of male roles confirm the pluralistic and slippery nature of masculinity. Key words: Masculinity, gender discourse, hegemony, sexuality, Nigerian novel

Japan and the Rise of the Idea of Race: The Meiji Era Fusion of Foreign and Domestic Constructions

Abstract: The notion of race, and notably the anxiety over the global hierarchy of the races alongside doubts about the capacity for survival of the Japanese ‘race ’, were a matter of unprecedented concern in Meiji era Japan. It was essentially a mere chance that the forced opening of Japan and the subsequent process of modernization carried out according to the Western model coincided with the rise of scientific racism in the West. Nonetheless, Japan had had its share of rudimental racial worldviews much earlier, including a certain degree of ethnographic knowledge of the Other and an indigenous sense of xenophobia. This chapter seeks to examine the interaction between the domestic and foreign views of race in Japan during the Meiji-era (1868–1912) and the way in which they amalgamated to form a national discourse surrounding self and the Other.

Evaluation of Iranian Contemporary Nationalist Historiography Characteristics

Abstract: Novel Iranian historiography is strongly influenced by the nationalist dialogue. It has had a great impact on redefining the new Iranian identity in the contemporary era. The Pahlavi regime (emerged in 1925) produced and used that way of thinking in a modern way and differently from previous traditional governments. This study will take a look at the emerging of the modern Iranian identity from a historical-analytical perspective and attempt to determine why the common nationalist thinking in most recent Iranian historic literature is dominant. It mentions the most significant characteristics of that party’s historiography. New Iranian historic literature, influenced by the nationalist dialogue, has characteristics such as modernization, racism, Islamophobia, westernization, and egotism.

Critical analysis of the ottoman constitution (1876)

Abstract: The conceptions of an individual and the nation-state gave birth to modernity and certainly shaped the socio-political systems in European countries. Newly founded European socio-political system gradually influenced social, political and legal structures of countries under the sphere of colonial and imperial influences of great powers. In this regard, such developments coupled with intensive westernization process influenced the Ottoman society, especially during the last decades of the empire. An analysis of the Ottoman Constitution (Kanun-u Esasi) (1876) within last few decades of the empire will show such socio-political and legal changes and developments. This paper, within the framework of constitutional acts, attempted to analyze two works that were critical about the Ottoman Constitution (1876). It is indicative that these two sources were also addressing western socio-political and legal influences on the Ottoman society. These two works deal with range of modern issues such as freedom, equality and justice by considering their very roots in the Islamic legal traditions. Therefore, this paper will analyze these two works in light of the Ottoman Constitution (1876) that preserved in essence the Islamic legal principles.

The Driving Forces of Higher Education: Westernization, Confucianism, Economization, and Globalization

Abstract: Although Western epistemology has dominated the landscape of higher education through early establishment and subsequent expansion, via colonization, the Confucian model of education is also a driving force of higher education throughout Asia. Four driving forces of higher education (Western, Confucian, Economic, and Globalization) will be discussed in greater detail in the following chapters in this part, and this chapter provides an overview of each force. These dominant forces shape the degree to which a higher education is attainable and the degree to which it is considered useful for society.

Cooperation and Conflict: Faction Problem of Western Medicine Group in Modern China.

Abstract: After the defeat of the Opium War and the Sino-Japanese War, China's intellectuals realized necessity of modernization (Westernization) to survive in the imperial order of the survival of the fittest. In particular, it was urgent to accept Western medicine and train the doctors who learned Western medicine to change the sick and weary Chinese to be robust. Thus, new occupations of the Western Medicine Group (xiyi, doctors who learned Western medicine) emerged in China. As with the first profession, the new Western Medicine Group tried to define standards of Western medicine and medical profession; however, it was difficult in the absence of the strong central government. In addition, they formed a faction by the country where they studied or the language they learned. The factions included the Britain - America faction(yingmeipai) consisting of the Britain - America studied doctors or graduates from Protestant missions based medical schools, and the Germany - Japan faction(deripai), graduates from medical schools by Japanese or German government and the Chinese government. In 1915, they founded the National Medical Association of China mainly consisting of the Britain - America faction and the National Medical and Pharmaceutical Association of China led by the Germany - Japan faction. Initially, exchanges were active so most of eminent doctors belonged the two associations at the same time. They had a consciousness of a common occupation group as a doctor who had learned Western medicine. Thus, they actively cooperated to keep their profits against Chinese medicine and enjoy their reputation. Their cooperation emitted light particularly in translation of medical terms and unified works. Thanks to cooperation, the two associations selected medical terminologies by properly using the cases of the West and Japan. Additionally, medical schools of the Britain - America faction and the Germany - Japan faction produced various levels of the Western Medicine Group doctors for China to timely respond to the rapidly increased demand. However, a conflict over the promotion of hygiene administration and the unification, organization of medical education did not end. This conflict was deepening as the Nanjing nationalist government promoted sanitary administration. It was the Britain - America faction who seized a chance of victory. It was because figures from the Britain - America faction held important positions in the hygiene department. Of course, some related to the National Medical and Pharmaceutical Association of China were also involved in the hygiene department; however, most took charge of simple technical tasks, not having a significant impact on hygiene administration. To solve the problem of factions of the Western Medicine Group, the Britain - America faction or the Germany - Japan faction had to arrange the education system with a strong power, or to organize a new association of two factions mixed, as in Chinese faction(zhonghuapai). But an effort of the Britain - America faction to unify the systems of medical schools did not reach the Germany - Japan faction's medical schools. Additionally, from 1928, executives of the two Chinese medical associations discussed their merger; however they could not agree because of practitioners'interests involved. Substantially, a conflict between factions of the Western Medicine Group continued even until the mid-1930s. This implies that the then Chinese government had a lack of capacity of uniting and organizing the medical community.

The Spread of Timepieces in the Meiji Period

Abstract: After the opening of Japanese ports in the late Edo period, trade with Europe and America expanded. Timepieces entered the country along with other items. Over the course of the Meiji era, timepieces became the first Western consumer durable to take root in the daily life of ordinary Japanese. This point can be substantiated, as I will show in this paper, by the increase in the rate of diffusion of timepieces. Broadly speaking, the spread of timepieces was without a doubt a part of the process of Westernization referred to in Japan as "civilization and enlightenment." Specifically, this meant that the use of modern Western technology became increasingly dominant within Japanese society, and goods produced using this technology grew in number. It cannot be said, however, that this process of Westernization was equally evident through out the society. A close look at this process reveals differences in the level and speed with which Western technologies and goods based on Western technology penetrated into Japanese society?differences which arose due to the technology itself as well as the nature of the products. The newly introduced systems rendered the old ones obsolete in areas subject to gov ernment spending, such as transportation and communications systems (e.g., railroads, shipping, and telephone and telegraph) and Western military infrastructure (including cannons and warships). Investments by companies in the new mining industry, too, brought about radical changes in production methods thanks to their use of imported machinery. Traditional economic history, however, has always emphasized this kind of dramatic change in investment goods, creating a mistaken impression that this type of Europeanization occurred at all levels of Japanese society. The situation with consumer goods was different. In terms of everyday life for the people?food, clothing, and shelter?Westernization proceeded at a much slower pace. Japanese material culture, which had matured through development of original technolo gies intimately tied to the climate and geography of Japan during the Edo period under the policy of national isolation, continued strong in daily life despite the changes brought by opening the borders, the Meiji Restoration, and finally the Industrial Revolution.1 At least through the Meiji and Taisho Periods, Japanese food, Japanese attire, and Japanese houses were the basis for everyday life, which meant that the prepon derance of household spending habits remained unchanged from the Edo period, and