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Showing papers on "Wireless Routing Protocol published in 2013"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This survey classifies routing problems from the perspective of information quality and evolution and presents a comprehensive review of applications and solution methods for dynamic vehicle routing problems.

1,066 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The classification initially proposed by Al-Karaki, is expanded, in order to enhance all the proposed papers since 2004 and to better describe which issues/operations in each protocol illustrate/enhance the energy-efficiency issues.
Abstract: The distributed nature and dynamic topology of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) introduces very special requirements in routing protocols that should be met. The most important feature of a routing protocol, in order to be efficient for WSNs, is the energy consumption and the extension of the network's lifetime. During the recent years, many energy efficient routing protocols have been proposed for WSNs. In this paper, energy efficient routing protocols are classified into four main schemes: Network Structure, Communication Model, Topology Based and Reliable Routing. The routing protocols belonging to the first category can be further classified as flat or hierarchical. The routing protocols belonging to the second category can be further classified as Query-based or Coherent and non-coherent-based or Negotiation-based. The routing protocols belonging to the third category can be further classified as Location-based or Mobile Agent-based. The routing protocols belonging to the fourth category can be further classified as QoS-based or Multipath-based. Then, an analytical survey on energy efficient routing protocols for WSNs is provided. In this paper, the classification initially proposed by Al-Karaki, is expanded, in order to enhance all the proposed papers since 2004 and to better describe which issues/operations in each protocol illustrate/enhance the energy-efficiency issues.

1,032 citations


Proceedings ArticleDOI
12 Aug 2013
TL;DR: NLSR's main design choices are discussed, including a hierarchical naming scheme for routers, keys, and routing updates, a hierarchical trust model for routing within a single administrative domain, a hop-by-hop synchronization protocol to replace the traditional network-wide flooding for routing update dissemination, and a simple way to rank multiple forwarding options.
Abstract: This paper presents the design of the Named-data Link State Routing protocol (NLSR), a routing protocol for Named Data Networking (NDN). Since NDN uses names to identify and retrieve data, NLSR propagates reachability to name prefixes instead of IP prefixes. Moreover, NLSR differs from IP-based link-state routing protocols in two fundamental ways. First, NLSR uses Interest/Data packets to disseminate routing updates, directly benefiting from NDN's data authenticity. Second, NLSR produces a list of ranked forwarding options for each name prefix to facilitate NDN's adaptive forwarding strategies. In this paper we discuss NLSR's main design choices on (1) a hierarchical naming scheme for routers, keys, and routing updates, (2) a hierarchical trust model for routing within a single administrative domain, (3) a hop-by-hop synchronization protocol to replace the traditional network-wide flooding for routing update dissemination, and (4) a simple way to rank multiple forwarding options. Compared with IP-based link state routing, NLSR offers more efficient update dissemination, built-in update authentication, and native support of multipath forwarding.

451 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper implements and demonstrates well-known routing attacks against 6LoWPAN networks running RPL as a routing protocol, and highlights novel security features in the IPv6 protocol and exemplifies the use of these features for intrusion detection in the IoT by implementing a lightweight heartbeat protocol.
Abstract: The Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) is a novel routing protocol standardized for constrained environments such as 6LoWPAN networks. Providing security in IPv6/RPL connected 6LoWPANs is challenging because the devices are connected to the untrusted Internet and are resource constrained, the communication links are lossy, and the devices use a set of novel IoT technologies such as RPL, 6LoWPAN, and CoAP/CoAPs. In this paper we provide a comprehensive analysis of IoT technologies and their new security capabilities that can be exploited by attackers or IDSs. One of the major contributions in this paper is our implementation and demonstration of well-known routing attacks against 6LoWPAN networks running RPL as a routing protocol. We implement these attacks in the RPL implementation in the Contiki operating system and demonstrate these attacks in the Cooja simulator. Furthermore, we highlight novel security features in the IPv6 protocol and exemplify the use of these features for intrusion detection in the IoT by implementing a lightweight heartbeat protocol.

404 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
Yue Cao1, Zhili Sun1
TL;DR: This article considers the term ICNs as Delay/Disruption Tolerant Networks (DTNs) for the purpose of generalization, since DTNs have been envisioned for different applications with a large number of proposed routing algorithms.
Abstract: The introduction of intelligent devices with short range wireless communication techniques has motivated the development of Mobile Ad hoc NETworks (MANETs) during the last few years. However, traditional end-to-end based routing algorithms designed for MANETs are not much robust in the challenged networks suffering from frequent disruption, sparse network density and limited device capability. Such challenged networks, also known as Intermittently Connected Networks (ICNs) adopt the Store-Carry-Forward (SCF) behavior arising from the mobility of mobile nodes for message relaying. In this article, we consider the term ICNs as Delay/Disruption Tolerant Networks (DTNs) for the purpose of generalization, since DTNs have been envisioned for different applications with a large number of proposed routing algorithms. Motivated by the great interest from the research community, we firstly review the existing unicasting issue of DTNs because of its extensive research stage. Then, we also address multicasting and anycasting issues in DTNs considering their perspectives. A detail survey based on our taxonomy over the period from 2006 to 2010 is not only provided but also a comparison is given. We further identify the remaining challenges and open issues followed by an evaluation framework proposed for routing in DTNs. Finally, we summarize our contribution with three future research topics highlighted.

349 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A directional routing and scheduling scheme (DRSS) for green vehicle DTNs is presented by using Nash Q-learning approach that can optimize the energy efficiency with the considerations of congestion, buffer and delay.
Abstract: The vehicle delay tolerant networks (DTNs) make opportunistic communications by utilizing the mobility of vehicles, where the node makes delay-tolerant based "carry and forward" mechanism to deliver the packets. The routing schemes for vehicle networks are challenging for varied network environment. Most of the existing DTN routing including routing for vehicular DTNs mainly focus on metrics such as delay, hop count and bandwidth, etc. A new focus in green communications is with the goal of saving energy by optimizing network performance and ultimately protecting the natural climate. The energy---efficient communication schemes designed for vehicular networks are imminent because of the pollution, energy consumption and heat dissipation. In this paper, we present a directional routing and scheduling scheme (DRSS) for green vehicle DTNs by using Nash Q-learning approach that can optimize the energy efficiency with the considerations of congestion, buffer and delay. Our scheme solves the routing and scheduling problem as a learning process by geographic routing and flow control toward the optimal direction. To speed up the learning process, our scheme uses a hybrid method with forwarding and replication according to traffic pattern. The DRSS algorithm explores the possible strategies, and then exploits the knowledge obtained to adapt its strategy and achieve the desired overall objective when considering the stochastic non-cooperative game in on-line multi-commodity routing situations. The simulation results of a vehicular DTN with predetermined mobility model show DRSS achieves good energy efficiency with learning ability, which can guarantee the delivery ratio within the delay bound.

296 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A robust soft-state routing protocol that supports opportunistic directional forwarding; and a new framework to attain loop freedom in static and mobile underwater networks to guarantee packet delivery are proposed.
Abstract: Underwater mobile sensor networks have recently been proposed as a way to explore and observe the ocean, providing 4D (space and time) monitoring of underwater environments. We consider a specialized geographic routing problem called pressure routing that directs a packet to any sonobuoy on the surface based on depth information available from on-board pressure gauges. The main challenge of pressure routing in sparse underwater networks has been the efficient handling of 3D voids. In this respect, it was recently proven that the greedy stateless perimeter routing method, very popular in 2D networks, cannot be extended to void recovery in 3D networks. Available heuristics for 3D void recovery require expensive flooding. In this paper, we propose a Void-Aware Pressure Routing (VAPR) protocol that uses sequence number, hop count and depth information embedded in periodic beacons to set up next-hop direction and to build a directional trail to the closest sonobuoy. Using this trail, opportunistic directional forwarding can be efficiently performed even in the presence of voids. The contribution of this paper is twofold: a robust soft-state routing protocol that supports opportunistic directional forwarding; and a new framework to attain loop freedom in static and mobile underwater networks to guarantee packet delivery. Extensive simulation results show that VAPR outperforms existing solutions.

252 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper aims to provide both a comprehensive and methodical survey of existing literature in the area of geographic routing from its inception as well as acting as an introduction to the subject.
Abstract: Geographic routing offers a radical departure from previous topology-dependent routing paradigms through its use of physical location in the routing process. Geographic routing protocols eliminate dependence on topology storage and the associated costs, which also makes them more suitable to handling dynamic behavior frequently found in wireless ad-hoc networks. Geographic routing protocols have been designed for a variety of applications ranging from mobility prediction and management through to anonymous routing and from energy efficiency to QoS. Geographic routing is also part of the larger area of context-awareness due to its usage of location data to make routing decisions and thus represents an important step in the journey towards ubiquitous computing. The focus of this paper, within the area of geographic routing is on wireless ad-hoc networks and how location information can benefit routing. This paper aims to provide both a comprehensive and methodical survey of existing literature in the area of geographic routing from its inception as well as acting as an introduction to the subject.

215 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A new protocol called Equalized Cluster Head Election Routing Protocol (ECHERP), which pursues energy conservation through balanced clustering, is proposed, which evince the effectiveness of this protocol in terms of network energy efficiency when compared against other well-known protocols.
Abstract: The wide utilization of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is obstructed by the severely limited energy constraints of the individual sensor nodes. This is the reason why a large part of the research in WSNs focuses on the development of energy efficient routing protocols. In this paper, a new protocol called Equalized Cluster Head Election Routing Protocol (ECHERP), which pursues energy conservation through balanced clustering, is proposed. ECHERP models the network as a linear system and, using the Gaussian elimination algorithm, calculates the combinations of nodes that can be chosen as cluster heads in order to extend the network lifetime. The performance evaluation of ECHERP is carried out through simulation tests, which evince the effectiveness of this protocol in terms of network energy efficiency when compared against other well-known protocols.

204 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Linear Programming (LP) model for maximum information extraction and minimum energy consumption is presented in this study and results show that the proposed routing algorithm has less energy consumption and more reliable as compared to Multi-hop communication.

203 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
01 Sep 2013
TL;DR: This paper presents a dynamic trust prediction model to evaluate the trustworthiness of nodes, which is based on the nodes’ historical behaviors, as well as the future behaviors via extended fuzzy logic rules prediction, and integrated the proposed trust predication model into the Source Routing Mechanism.
Abstract: Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are spontaneously deployed over a geographically limited area without well-established infrastructure. The networks work well only if the mobile nodes are trusty and behave cooperatively. Due to the openness in network topology and absence of a centralized administration in management, MANETs are very vulnerable to various attacks from malicious nodes. In order to reduce the hazards from such nodes and enhance the security of network, this paper presents a dynamic trust prediction model to evaluate the trustworthiness of nodes, which is based on the nodes’ historical behaviors, as well as the future behaviors via extended fuzzy logic rules prediction. We have also integrated the proposed trust predication model into the Source Routing Mechanism. Our novel on-demand trust-based unicast routing protocol for MANETs, termed as Trust-based Source Routing protocol (TSR), provides a flexible and feasible approach to choose the shortest route that meets the security requirement of data packets transmission. Extensive experiments have been conducted to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of the proposed mechanism in malicious node identification and attack resistance. The results show that TSR improves packet delivery ratio and reduces average end-to-end latency.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Methods to mitigate resource depletion attacks at the routing protocol layer, which permanently disable networks by quickly draining nodes' battery power, are discussed, including a new proof-of-concept protocol that provably bounds the damage caused by Vampires during the packet forwarding phase.
Abstract: Ad hoc low-power wireless networks are an exciting research direction in sensing and pervasive computing. Prior security work in this area has focused primarily on denial of communication at the routing or medium access control levels. This paper explores resource depletion attacks at the routing protocol layer, which permanently disable networks by quickly draining nodes' battery power. These "Vampire” attacks are not specific to any specific protocol, but rather rely on the properties of many popular classes of routing protocols. We find that all examined protocols are susceptible to Vampire attacks, which are devastating, difficult to detect, and are easy to carry out using as few as one malicious insider sending only protocol-compliant messages. In the worst case, a single Vampire can increase network-wide energy usage by a factor of O(N), where N in the number of network nodes. We discuss methods to mitigate these types of attacks, including a new proof-of-concept protocol that provably bounds the damage caused by Vampires during the packet forwarding phase.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
11 Nov 2013
TL;DR: ORPL is presented, an opportunistic routing protocol that supports any-to-any, on-demand traffic, and increases robustness and scalability, addressing the whole network reliably through a 64-byte Bloom filter, where RPL needs kilobytes of routing tables for the same task.
Abstract: Routing in battery-operated wireless networks is challenging, posing a tradeoff between energy and latency. Previous work has shown that opportunistic routing can achieve low-latency data collection in duty-cycled networks. However, applications are now considered where nodes are not only periodic data sources, but rather addressable end points generating traffic with arbitrary patterns.We present ORPL, an opportunistic routing protocol that supports any-to-any, on-demand traffic. ORPL builds upon RPL, the standard protocol for low-power IPv6 networks. By combining RPL's tree-like topology with opportunistic routing, ORPL forwards data to any destination based on the mere knowledge of the nodes' sub-tree. We use bitmaps and Bloom filters to represent and propagate this information in a space-efficient way, making ORPL scale to large networks of addressable nodes. Our results in a 135-node testbed show that ORPL outperforms a number of state-of-the-art solutions including RPL and CTP, conciliating a sub-second latency and a sub-percent duty cycle. ORPL also increases robustness and scalability, addressing the whole network reliably through a 64-byte Bloom filter, where RPL needs kilobytes of routing tables for the same task.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A survey of the state-of-the-art of proposed multipath routing protocols for WSNs, which are classified into three categories, infrastructure based, non-infrastructure based and coding based, based on the special techniques used in building multiple paths and delivering sensing data.
Abstract: Multipath routing is an efficient technique to route data in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) because it can provide reliability, security and load balance, which are especially critical in the resource constrained system such as WSNs. In this paper we provide a survey of the state-of-the-art of proposed multipath routing protocols for WSNs, which are classified into three categories, infrastructure based, non-infrastructure based and coding based, based on the special techniques used in building multiple paths and delivering sensing data. For each category, we study the design of protocols, analyze the tradeoff of each design, and overview several representing protocols. In addition, we give a summery of design goals, challenges, and evaluation metrics for multipath routing protocols in resource constrained systems in general.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This work proposes an Anonymous Location-based Efficient Routing proTocol (ALERT), a novel anonymous routing protocol that dynamically partitions the network field into zones and randomly chooses nodes in zones as intermediate relay nodes, which form a nontraceable anonymous route.
Abstract: Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) use anonymous routing protocols that hide node identities and/or routes from outside observers in order to provide anonymity protection. However, existing anonymous routing protocols relying on either hop-by-hop encryption or redundant traffic, either generate high cost or cannot provide full anonymity protection to data sources, destinations, and routes. The high cost exacerbates the inherent resource constraint problem in MANETs especially in multimedia wireless applications. To offer high anonymity protection at a low cost, we propose an Anonymous Location-based Efficient Routing proTocol (ALERT). ALERT dynamically partitions the network field into zones and randomly chooses nodes in zones as intermediate relay nodes, which form a nontraceable anonymous route. In addition, it hides the data initiator/receiver among many initiators/receivers to strengthen source and destination anonymity protection. Thus, ALERT offers anonymity protection to sources, destinations, and routes. It also has strategies to effectively counter intersection and timing attacks. We theoretically analyze ALERT in terms of anonymity and efficiency. Experimental results exhibit consistency with the theoretical analysis, and show that ALERT achieves better route anonymity protection and lower cost compared to other anonymous routing protocols. Also, ALERT achieves comparable routing efficiency to the GPSR geographical routing protocol.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Two bounded-length maze routing (BLMR) algorithms are presented that perform much faster routing than traditional maze routing algorithms and a rectilinear Steiner minimum tree aware routing scheme is proposed to guide heuristic-BLMR and monotonic routing to build a routing tree with shorter wirelength.
Abstract: Modern global routers employ various routing methods to improve routing speed and quality Maze routing is the most time-consuming process for existing global routing algorithms This paper presents two bounded-length maze routing (BLMR) algorithms (optimal-BLMR and heuristic-BLMR) that perform much faster routing than traditional maze routing algorithms In addition, a rectilinear Steiner minimum tree aware routing scheme is proposed to guide heuristic-BLMR and monotonic routing to build a routing tree with shorter wirelength This paper also proposes a parallel multithreaded collision-aware global router based on a previous sequential global router (SGR) Unlike the partitioning-based strategy, the proposed parallel router uses a task-based concurrency strategy Finally, a 3-D wirelength optimization technique is proposed to further refine the 3-D routing results Experimental results reveal that the proposed SGR uses less wirelength and runs faster than most of other state-of-the-art global routers with a different set of parameters , , , Compared to the proposed SGR, the proposed parallel router yields almost the same routing quality with average 271 and 312-fold speedup on overflow-free and hard-to-route cases, respectively, when running on a 4-core system

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper analyzes several different types of internal threats that are aimed at the Rank property and study their impact on the performance of the wireless sensor network, and shows that attack in a high forwarding load area will have more impact on network performance than attack in other areas.
Abstract: Routing protocol for low power and lossy networks (RPL) is the underlying routing protocol of 6LoWPAN, a core communication standard for the Internet of Things. RPL outperforms other wireless sensor and ad hoc routing protocols in quality of service (QoS), device management, and energy saving performance. The Rank concept in RPL serves multiple purposes, including route optimization, prevention of loops, and managing control overhead. In this paper, we analyze several different types of internal threats that are aimed at the Rank property and study their impact on the performance of the wireless sensor network. Our analysis raises the question of an RPL weakness, which is the lack of a monitoring parent in every node. In RPL, the child node only receives the parent information through control messages, but it cannot check the services that its parent provide hence it will follow a bad quality route if it has a malicious parent. Our results show that different types of the Rank attacks can be used to intentionally downgrade specific QoS parameters. This paper also reveals that attack in a high forwarding load area will have more impact on network performance than attack in other areas. The defenders can use the knowledge of such correlation between attack location and its impact to set higher security levels at particular positions by monitoring sensitive network parameters and detecting the anomalies.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: By doing qualitative comparison of routing protocols, it is observed that hybrid communication would be the better choice for both communication mode operable in either a city environment or an open environment.

Journal Article
TL;DR: This paper gives an overview of Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) and the existing VANET routing protocols; mainly it focused on vehicle to vehicle (V2V) communication and protocols.
Abstract: In recent years, the aspect of vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) is becoming an interesting research area; VANET is a mobile ad hoc network considered as a special case of mobile ad hoc network (MANET). Similar to MANET, VANET is characterized as autonomous and self-configured wireless network. However, VANET has very dynamic topology, large and variable network size, and constrained mobility; these characteristics led to the need for efficient routing and resource saving VANET protocols, to fit with different VANET environments. These differences render traditional MANET's protocols unsuitable for VANET. The aim of this work is to give a survey of the VANETs routing mechanisms, this paper gives an overview of Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) and the existing VANET routing protocols; mainly it focused on vehicle to vehicle (V2V) communication and protocols. The paper also represents the general outlines and goals of VANETs, investigates different routing schemes that have been developed for VANETs, as well as providing classifications of VANET routing protocols (focusing on two classification forms), and gives summarized comparisons between different classes in the context of their methodologies used, strengths, and limitations of each class scheme compared to other classes. Finally, it extracts the current trends and the challenges for efficient routing mechanisms in VANETs.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper is the first to propose an evolving graph-based reliable routing scheme for VANETs to facilitate quality-of-service (QoS) support in the routing process and demonstrates, through the simulation results, that the proposed scheme significantly outperforms the related protocols in the literature.
Abstract: Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) are a special form of wireless networks made by vehicles communicating among themselves on roads. The conventional routing protocols proposed for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) work poorly in VANETs. As communication links break more frequently in VANETs than in MANETs, the routing reliability of such highly dynamic networks needs to be paid special attention. To date, very little research has focused on the routing reliability of VANETs on highways. In this paper, we use the evolving graph theory to model the VANET communication graph on a highway. The extended evolving graph helps capture the evolving characteristics of the vehicular network topology and determines the reliable routes preemptively. This paper is the first to propose an evolving graph-based reliable routing scheme for VANETs to facilitate quality-of-service (QoS) support in the routing process. A new algorithm is developed to find the most reliable route in the VANET evolving graph from the source to the destination. We demonstrate, through the simulation results, that our proposed scheme significantly outperforms the related protocols in the literature.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
14 Apr 2013
TL;DR: A novel zero-knowledge MSN routing algorithm, homing spread (HS), aimed at using homes to spread messages faster achieves a better performance than existing zero- knowledge MSn routing algorithms, including Epidemic, with a given number of copies, and Spray&Wait.
Abstract: A mobile social network (MSN) is a special delay tolerant network (DTN) composed of mobile nodes with social characteristics. Mobile nodes in MSNs generally visit community homes frequently, while other locations are visited less frequently. We propose a novel zero-knowledge MSN routing algorithm, homing spread (HS). The community homes have a higher priority to spread messages into the network. Theoretical analysis shows that the proposed algorithm can spread a given number of message copies in an optimal way when the inter-meeting times between any two nodes and between a node and a community home follow exponential distributions. We also calculate the expected delivery delay of HS. In addition, extensive simulations are conducted. Results show that community homes are important factors in efficient message spreading. By using homes to spread messages faster, HS achieves a better performance than existing zero-knowledge MSN routing algorithms, including Epidemic, with a given number of copies, and Spray&Wait.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper presents an information-centric architecture for IEEE 802.11 wireless ad hoc networks, named E-CHANET, which performs routing, forwarding and reliable transport functions, specifically tailored to cope with the limitations and requirements of wireless distributed environments.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: PFQ-AODV is a flexible, portable, and practicable solution for routing in VANETs that learns the optimal route by employing a fuzzy constraint Q-learning algorithm based on ad hoc on-demand distance vector (A ODV) routing.
Abstract: Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) have been attracting interest for their potential uses in driving assistance, traffic monitoring, and entertainment systems. However, due to vehicle movement, limited wireless resources, and the lossy characteristics of a wireless channel, providing a reliable multihop communication in VANETs is particularly challenging. In this paper, we propose PFQ-AODV, which is a portable VANET routing protocol that learns the optimal route by employing a fuzzy constraint Q-learning algorithm based on ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing. The protocol uses fuzzy logic to evaluate whether a wireless link is good or not by considering multiple metrics, which are, specifically, the available bandwidth, link quality, and relative vehicle movement. Based on an evaluation of each wireless link, the proposed protocol learns the best route using the route request (RREQ) messages and hello messages. The protocol can infer vehicle movement based on neighbor information when position information is unavailable. PFQ-AODV is also independent of lower layers. Therefore, PFQ-AODV provides a flexible, portable, and practicable solution for routing in VANETs. We show the effectiveness of the proposed protocol by using both computer simulations and real-world experiments.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A mobicast problem in three-dimensional (3D) underwater sensor networks (USNs) is investigated in this paper, which aims to overcome the hole problem and minimizes the energy consumption of the sensor nodes while maximizing the data collection.
Abstract: In this paper, we investigate a mobicast, also called a mobile geocast, problem in three-dimensional (3-D) underwater sensor networks (USNs), which aims to overcome the hole problem and minimizes the energy consumption of the sensor nodes while maximizing the data collection. In this paper, all underwater sensor nodes are randomly distributed in a 3-D underwater environment in the sea to form a 3-D USN. Considered a mobile sink or an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), all possible sensor nodes near the AUV form a 3-D geographic zone called a 3-D zone of reference (3-D ZOR). The AUV travels a user-defined route and continuously collects data from sensor nodes within a series of 3-D ZORs at different times. The main problem is how to efficiently collect data from sensor nodes within a 3-D ZOR while those sensor nodes are usually in sleep mode for a long period. The routing protocol relies on two phases: the first phase consists of collecting data within a 3-D ZOR, and the second phase consists of waking up those sensor nodes in the next 3-D ZOR to be queried while trying to avoid topology holes. To save power, only sensor nodes in a 3-D ZOR are notified to enter the active mode in order to deliver sensed results to the AUV. The specific characteristics of USNs, including low communication bandwidth, large propagation delay, and ocean current, are significantly different from wireless sensor networks. To consider the characteristics of USNs, a new mobicast routing protocol is developed in 3-D USNs. The key design challenge is to develop a power-saving mobicast protocol in 3-D USNs to overcome the unpredictable 3-D hole problem. To solve the hole problem, an “apple slice” technique is used to build multiple segments to surround the hole and to assure routing path continuity. Finally, performance analysis is derived, and simulation results illustrate the performance improvement in successful delivery rate, power consumption, and message overhead.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: An energy-efficient genetic algorithm mechanism to resolve quality of service (QoS) multicast routing problem, which is NP-complete, depends on bounded end-to-end delay and minimum energy cost of the multicast tree.
Abstract: The consideration of energy consumption in wireless ad hoc networks prevents the problem of the network exhausting batteries, thus partitioning the entire network. Power-aware multicasting is proposed to reduce the power consumption. This letter presents an energy-efficient genetic algorithm mechanism to resolve quality of service (QoS) multicast routing problem, which is NP-complete. The proposed genetic algorithm depends on bounded end-to-end delay and minimum energy cost of the multicast tree. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithm is effective and efficient.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
28 Oct 2013
TL;DR: This work uses multi-hop topology to achieve minimum energy consumption and longer network lifetime and proposes a cost function to select parent node or forwarder which selects a parent node which has high residual energy and minimum distance to sink.
Abstract: In this work, we propose a reliable, power efficient and high throughput routing protocol for Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs). We use multi-hop topology to achieve minimum energy consumption and longer network lifetime. We propose a cost function to select parent node or forwarder. Proposed cost function selects a parent node which has high residual energy and minimum distance to sink. Residual energy parameter balances the energy consumption among the sensor nodes while distance parameter ensures successful packet delivery to sink. Simulation results show that our proposed protocol maximize the network stability period and nodes stay alive for longer period. Longer stability period contributes high packet delivery to sink which is major interest for continuous patient monitoring.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
21 Jan 2013
TL;DR: This paper proposes a load balanced routing protocol based on the RPL protocol, named LB-RPL, to achieve balanced workload distribution in the network, and demonstrates the performance superiority of this protocol over original RPL through extensive simulations.
Abstract: The RPL routing protocol published in RFC 6550 was designed for efficient and reliable data collection in low-power and lossy networks. Specifically, it constructs a Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG) for data forwarding. However, due to the uneven deployment of sensor nodes in large areas, and the heterogeneous traffic patterns in the network, some sensor nodes may have much heavier workload in terms of packets forwarded than others. Such unbalanced workload distribution will result in these sensor nodes quickly exhausting their energy, and therefore shorten the overall network lifetime. In this paper, we propose a load balanced routing protocol based on the RPL protocol, named LB-RPL, to achieve balanced workload distribution in the network. Targeted at the low-power and lossy network environments, LB-RPL detects workload imbalance in a distributed and non-intrusive fashion. In addition, it optimizes the data forwarding path by jointly considering both workload distribution and link-layer communication qualities. We demonstrate the performance superiority of our LB-RPL protocol over original RPL through extensive simulations.

Proceedings ArticleDOI
14 Apr 2013
TL;DR: This paper studies the interesting problem of co-locating the mobile base station on the wireless charging vehicle (WCV) and develops a mathematical model for this complex problem, which develops a provably near-optimal solution to OPT-s.
Abstract: Wireless energy transfer is a promising technology to fundamentally address energy and lifetime problems in a wireless sensor network (WSN). On the other hand, it has been well recognized that a mobile base station has significant advantages over a static one. In this paper, we study the interesting problem of co-locating the mobile base station on the wireless charging vehicle (WCV). The goal is to minimize energy consumption of the entire system while ensuring none of the sensor nodes runs out of energy. We develop a mathematical model for this complex problem. Instead of studying the general problem formulation (OPT-t), which is time-dependent, we show that it is sufficient to study a special subproblem (OPT-s) which only involves space-dependent variables. Subsequently, we develop a provably near-optimal solution to OPT-s. The novelty of this research mainly resides in the development of several solution techniques to tackle a complex problem that is seemingly intractable at first glance. In addition to addressing a challenging and interesting problem in a WSN, we expect the techniques developed in this research can be applied to address other related networking problems involving time-dependent movement, flow routing, and energy consumption.

01 Jan 2013
TL;DR: The aim of this research is to provide a solution on the basis of reputation method to solve routing issues raised by misbehaving nodes.
Abstract: The Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR) is a simple and efficient routing protocol designed specifically for use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of mobile nodes. DSR allows the network to be completely self-organizing and self-configuring, without the need for any existing network infrastructure or administration. The protocol is composed of the two mechanisms of Route Discovery and Route Maintenance, which work together to allow nodes to discover and maintain source routes to arbitrary destinations in the ad hoc network. The aim of this research is to provide a solution on the basis of reputation method to solve routing issues raised by misbehaving nodes.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A unified framework for analyzing joint sink mobility, routing, delay, and so on is built and a polynomial-time optimal algorithm for the origin problem is proposed.
Abstract: This paper exploits sink mobility to prolong the network lifetime in wireless sensor networks where the information delay caused by moving the sink should be bounded. Due to the combinational complexity of this problem, most previous proposals focus on heuristics and provable optimal algorithms remain unknown. In this paper, we build a unified framework for analyzing this joint sink mobility, routing, delay, and so on. We discuss the induced subproblems and present efficient solutions for them. Then, we generalize these solutions and propose a polynomial-time optimal algorithm for the origin problem. In simulations, we show the benefits of involving a mobile sink and the impact of network parameters (e.g., the number of sensors, the delay bound, etc.) on the network lifetime. Furthermore, we study the effects of different trajectories of the sink and provide important insights for designing mobility schemes in real-world mobile WNNs.