Showing papers on "Workforce published in 1998"
Posted Content•
TL;DR: The authors examined the impact of new technologies, the emergence of new management policies, the changing forms of employment contract, and the growth of job insecurity on people's experience of employment, focusing on the implications these developments have for the ways in which skills and work tasks have been changing, the nature of control at work, the degree of participation in decision-making and the flexibility demanded at work.
Abstract: This masterly new study presents the first large-scale empirical analysis of the changes in British work experiences and employment relationships between the 1980s and 1990s. Drawing on the Employment in Britain surveya national survey providing the richest source of evidence to date about individuals' experience of employmentit examines the impact of new technologies, the emergence of new management policies, the changing forms of employment contract, and the growth of job insecurity on people's experience of employment. The authors focus on the implications these developments have for the ways in which skills and work tasks have been changing, the nature of control at work, the degree of participation in decision-making, and the flexibility demanded at work. They assess whether there has been a tendency towards either a polarization or convergence of employment experiences between men and women, and between occupational classes. They offer fresh insight into how the changing quality of work in recent years has affected employee's involvement in their jobs and organizations, the stress they experience at work, and the propensity for absenteeism and staff turnover. While the study provides strong evidence of a marked trend towards upskilling, the authors take issue with the argument that a new type of employment relationship is emerging, arguing instead that the restructuring of the employment relationship has, in fact, reinforced traditional lines of division in the workforce.
587 citations
TL;DR: It is found that informal carers who care for less than 20 h per week are, in fact, more likely to participate in the labour market, but tend to work for fewer hours per week than otherwise similar noncarers.
215 citations
TL;DR: Results of the analysis of the data on the number of public and private health care providers for approximately 40 countries are presented, finding that while income level is related to the absolute size of the private sector, the public-private mix does not seem to be related to income.
Abstract: While the importance of the private sector in providing health services in developing countries is now widely acknowledged, the paucity of data on numbers and types of providers has prevented systematic cross-country comparisons. Using available published and unpublished sources, we have assembled data on the number of public and private health care providers for approximately 40 countries. This paper presents some results of the analysis of this database, looking particularly at the determinants of the size and structure of the private health sector. We consider two different types of dependent variable: the absolute number of private providers (measured here as physicians and hospital beds), and the public-private composition of provision. We examine the relationship between these variables and income and other socioeconomic characteristics, at the national level. We find that while income level is related to the absolute size of the private sector, the public-private mix does not seem to be related to income. After controlling for income, certain socioeconomic characteristics, such as education, population density, and health status are associated with the size of the private sector, though no causal relationship is posited. Further analysis will require more complete data about the size of the private sector, including the extent of dual practice by government-employed physicians. A richer story of the determinants of private sector growth would incorporate more information about the institutional structure of health systems, including provider payment mechanisms, the level and quality of public services, the regulatory structure, and labour and capital market characteristics. Finally, a normative analysis of the size and growth of the private sector will require a better understanding of its impact on key social welfare outcomes.
183 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined what managers mean when they report having skills shortages and found that the concept of a skills shortage is not always the same as a hard-to-fill vacancy despite the latter being used by many authors who have considered the economic consequences of skills shortages.
Abstract: In this paper we use establishment-level data to examine what managers mean when they report having skills shortages. We find that the concept of a skills shortage is not always the same as a hard-to-fill vacancy despite the latter being used by many authors who have considered the economic consequences of skills shortages.
It seems that, while employers appear not to have any problems for themselves in interpreting questions on ‘skills shortages’, we cannot rely on them being perceived in a uniform way by all employers. Indeed, many employers stress that, amongst both their existing workforce and job applicants, there appear to be important shortfalls in motivational and attitudinal skills, leading us to believe that social skills are an important part of the skills said to be in shortage.
Our findings point to two main conclusions for future research. First, studies that investigate the causes and effects of ‘skill shortages’ need to pay greater attention to their definition and measurement. Secondly, in future research on establishments and their skill formation practices, further steps could be taken to gain clarification either directly or indirectly from respondents as to the experiences they choose to classify as a skills shortage.
158 citations
TL;DR: Home care workers were the most satisfied with their jobs, and were also the group least likely to be stressed or to experience violence in the course of their work, while residential workers were most at risk of both violence and stress.
Abstract: A major survey of the social services workforce (Balloch et al, forthcoming), carried out in the Research Unit at the National Institute for Social Work, has produced new data about sources ol job satisfaction and about the incidence of stress and violence. The survey took place in five different local authorities in England, and interviews were carried out with 1276 individuals, selected from four groups of staff: managers, social work staff, home care workers and residential staff. The results suggested that those who work in the statutory social services do experience more stress and violence than workers in other pans of the health and welfare services. However, different jobs presented different hazards. In general, home care workers were the most satisfied with their jobs, and were also the group least likely to be stressed or to experience violence in the course of their work. By contrast, residential workers, especially those with management responsibilities, were most at risk of both violence and stress. Men were more likely than women to experience violence, while other groups with a higher than average risk of stress included younger members of staff, and managers and social work staff responsible for elderly people.
152 citations
TL;DR: An integer linear programming model is presented for evaluating cross-training configurations at the policy level to minimize workforce staffing costs subject to the satisfaction of minimum labor requirements across a planning horizon of a single work shift.
Abstract: Service operations that utilize cross-trained employees face complex workforce staffing decisions that have important implications for both cost and productivity. These decisions are further complicated when cross-trained employees have different productivity levels in multiple work activity categories. A method for policy analysis in such environments can be beneficial in determining low-cost staffing plans with appropriate cross-training configurations.
In this paper, we present an integer linear programming model for evaluating cross-training configurations at the policy level. The objective of the model is to minimize workforce staffing costs subject to the satisfaction of minimum labor requirements across a planning horizon of a single work shift. The model was used to evaluate eight cross-training structures (consisting of 36 unique cross-training configurations) across 512 labor requirement patterns. These structures, as well as the labor requirement patterns, were established based on data collected from maintenance operations at a large paper mill in the United States. The results indicate that asymmetric cross-training structures that permit chaining of employee skill classes across work activity categories are particularly useful.
150 citations
Posted Content•
TL;DR: The relationship between employment, education, opportunity, social exclusion and poverty are central to current policy debates as discussed by the authors, and the importance of work in providing self-esteem and non-material parts of human well-being is highlighted.
Abstract: The relationships between employment, education, opportunity, social exclusion and poverty are central to current policy debates Atkinson argues that the concepts of poverty, unemployment and social exclusion are closely related, but are not the same People may be poor without being socially excluded, and vice versa Unemployment may cause poverty, but this can be prevented Equally, marginal jobs do not ensure social inclusion Britton argues that convential economic analysis misses a key part of the problem of unemployment: the role of work in providing self-esteem and non-material parts of human well-being Hills examines whether new evidence on income mobility implies less worry about inequality and relative poverty Some low income is transitory, but the 'poverty problem' discounting this remains 80-90 per cent of that shown by cross-section surveys Machin finds that intergenerational mobility is limited in terms of earnings and education, and that childhood disadvantage has effects long into adult life and is an important factor in maintaining immobility of economic status across generations Arulampalam and Booth suggest that there is a trade-off between expanding more marginal forms of employment and expanding the proportion of the workforce getting work-related training Workers in temporary or short-term contracts, part-time, and non-unionised employment are less likely to receive work-related training Green and colleagues compare 1986 and 1997 surveys to show that skill levels for British workers have been rising, not just in the qualifications needed to get jobs, but also in the skills actually used in them There is no evidence of 'credentialism'
143 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the analysis of human resources in the context of health sector appraisal studies will need to improve in depth, scope and quality by incorporating functional, institutional and policy dimensions.
Abstract: Health care reforms require fundamental changes to the ways in which the health workforce is planned, managed and developed within national health systems. While issues involved in such transition remain complex, their importance and the need to address them in a proactive manner are vital for reforms to achieve their key policy objectives. For a start, the analysis of human resources in the context of health sector appraisal studies will need to improve in depth, scope and quality by incorporating functional, institutional and policy dimensions.
139 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that it is possible to achieve mutual advantage to both employers and employees by understanding the different needs of individual employees, but only through understanding the business imperatives behind the need for change.
Abstract: Flexibility is a difficult concept because it is used in a number of different contexts, both in the world of work and in the political arena. It is advocated by some political leaders, business gurus, and employers as the necessary condition for the survival of national labour markets in a fast-moving world of growing global competition. It is also seen as the necessary response at the workplace to these selfsame volatile business conditions. Others, especially trade union leaders, reject the benefits claimed for flexibility, seeing it as a means to cut wage costs and increase employment insecurity. Getting beyond the rhetoric, is it possible to see flexible work arrangements achieving mutual advantage to employers and employees? This article suggests that it is possible to do this, but only through employers understanding the different needs of their individual employees; the workforce for its part has to understand the business imperatives behind the need for change. A “dealing” process is outlined to ...
133 citations
Book•
01 Jul 1998
TL;DR: This collection of essays is designed to give the reader a historical perspective on the fastest growing sector of the workforce: knowledge workers.
Abstract: From the Publisher:
This collection of essays is designed to give the reader a historical perspective on the fastest growing sector of the workforce: knowledge workers. The articles tell how knowledge workers evolved from agricultural and manufacturing jobs and proceed to give some insights as to what the future roles will be.
TL;DR: The widespread organisational restructuring and reengineering initiatives sweeping the hospital industry represent a target of opportunity for studying the impact of variation in staYng and organisation on patient outcomes, and for implementing the findings of such studies to improve patient outcomes.
Abstract: Hospital reorganisation and work redesign is being widely implemented. According to anecdotal and media accounts, a target of restructuring eVorts is often the workforce, of which nursing personnel (registered nurses, licenced practical nurses, and nurse aides) represent 37% of United States hospital employees. Hospital restructuring initiatives are altering nursing work force patterns by changing organisational and structural variables such as the number, types, and mix of nursing personnel available to provide care to patients. 4 As a result, individual nurses and professional organisations have expressed concern over the potential impact of these activities on patient care and nurse stress and burnout, and there is at least one recent study documenting a decline in nurses’ job satisfaction and higher nurse turnover associated with hospital restructuring. Reports in the media echo nurses’ concerns and describe elimination of registered nurses’ positions, lay oVs, substitution with unlicenced assistive personnel, adverse patient incidents, and deteriorating working conditions for hospital nurses. 7 These claims were supported in the United States by a national survey of registered nurses which reported widespread reductions in hospital nurse staYng, leading to unsafe staYng levels, eroding quality of patient care, and threatening patient safety. Nurses’ perceive a deterioration in care that has resulted from hospital reorganisation, but empirical evidence is lacking. 7 9 10 The widespread organisational restructuring and reengineering initiatives sweeping the hospital industry represent a target of opportunity for studying the impact of variation in staYng and organisation on patient outcomes, and for implementing the findings of such studies to improve patient outcomes. In this essay, we identify research that has been done by various investigators on hospital organisation and patient outcomes, describe some of our own recent research on that relation, and comment on where, in our estimation, additional research is needed.
TL;DR: The use of flexible labour is partly a response to a well-organised labour movement which has won shopfloor rights over the past decade and has succeeded in getting these rights entrenched in law as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Drawing on two case studies of the growth of casualisation and subcontracting in South Africa, this paper shows how 'flexiwork' is being introduced at the same time as South Africa's first democratically elected government is trying to extend basic core rights and standards to large sectors of the workforce that have in the past been excluded from the core labour regulation regime. This shift by employers towards 'flexiwork', in combination with high unemployment and the legacy of a sharply racially segmented labour market under apartheid, is re-segmenting a dual labour market. An increasingly polarised labour market is emerging, consisting of a growing number of marginalised 'flexiworkers' next to a 'core' workforce of black and white workers who increasingly also feel the threat of insecurity. The use of flexible labour is partly a response to a well-organised labour movement which has won shopfloor rights over the past decade and has succeeded in getting these rights entrenched in law. Although the lab...
TL;DR: A review of the major contributions that I-O psychology has made to the understanding of the effects of training can be found in this article, where several analytical models which may prove of relevance to practitioners and to scholars in guiding the selection and the design of transferable training programs are presented and discussed.
Abstract: This paper reviews the major contributions that I-O Psychology has made to the understanding of the effects of training. Moving away from a purely pedagogical perspective, the psychological states of trainees, especially motivation, self-efficacy, and perceived control, combined with the realities of the organisational context, all influence the outcomes of training. Many of these variables have been shown to be malleable within a training context, and this has led to the development of powerful tools, techniques, and interventions that were lacking in the past. From a methodological perspective, research has identified the relevant measurement criteria, as well as when and how evaluation can be conducted. In addition, new instruments that assess organisational transfer climate and continuous-learning cultures are now available. Their use will allow organizations to better understand why they obtain the training results they do, and what they can do to improve training outcomes. Even as the importance of the work environment to training success has been amply demonstrated, it remains a very rare event when training departments intervene effectively to enhance the level of environmental support. Substantial practical suggestions that are theoretically and empirically grounded in research and techniques for enhancing training effectiveness under a variety of organisational conditions, be they favourable or not to training, are described. Several analytical models which may prove of relevance to practitioners and to scholars in guiding the selection and the design of transferable training programs are presented and discussed.The last decade of the twentieth century points quite visibly to signs of a major transformation of work and organizations that is likely to continue into the next century. A number of geo-political forces such as the industrialization of the Asian nations which is now in full swing, and more generalized trade treaties appear to be shifting the "rich" economies away from industrial production and towards service industries that are technology intensive. The services once offered by bank tellers, typists, and telephone operators to chose but three examples, are routinely provided by customer operated technologies.Whether or not the nineties become known as the transformation decade, it has brought difficulties to all Western type economies. Although Canada shares many of the woes of the time -- unemployment, uncertainty, loss of confidence, etc. -- the nineties brought problems specific to us. The collapse of key resource based industries, especially the East Coast Fisheries, generalized governmental cut-backs, major downsizing and plant closings have all occurred simultaneously. Many unemployed workers now hold competencies for jobs that no longer exist. The ensuing social problem stimulated a collective response and public funds have been committed, in great abundance, to job re-training.Training as a Social Response to a Social ProblemMany countries, especially European ones, have extensive training policies. Whereas Canada has long accepted a collective role in the development of the workforce, it has been unable as yet to frame an overall policy. Although Canadian companies spend $4 billion annually on training and development, on average they spend only one-half of what is spent by American firms, and much less than what is spent by organizations in Japan and Europe (Belcourt & Wright, 1996). In fact, in his study of the Canadian economy, Michael Porter warned that Canadians face a future declining standard of living if we do not increase our investment in workplace training and education (Toulin, 1991).Fortunately, training budgets in Canadian organizations are increasing at a higher rate than inflation (McIntyre, 1994), and some provinces, notably Quebec and New Brunswick, have taken legislative steps to ensure that this trend continues. …
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors reviewed and synthesized the research on burnout among child care workers in early childhood settings and identified a number of conceptual and empirical gaps in the literature.
Abstract: This paper reviews and synthesizes the research on burnout among child care workers in early childhood settings and identifies a number of conceptual and empirical gaps in the literature. Factors that contribute to burnout include the wages and working conditions of child; unclear, ambiguous, or conflicting job descriptions; low levels of communication and social support in the workplace; educational background and employment history; personality factors; and perceptions of child care work. A number of recommendations are made to extend and deepen the research on burnout. There is a need both for more longitudinal research on child care workers as they progress through their career ladders and for retrospective research on individuals after they have left the field due to burnout. Qualitative research methods such as ethnography, case study, and action research can provide additional depth, meaning, and detail on the lived experience of burnout and thereby complement and extend the many quantitative studies in this area. The paper discusses the importance of gender relations and feminist research approaches to the study of a field in which 98% of the workforce are women.
TL;DR: In this article, it is shown that how people learn in their work is a complex process characterised by a range of variations and that management in different worksites need to understand the diversity of approaches by workers to learning in their jobs and offer opportunities for such activities to be continuous, reflective, individualised and/or collective.
Abstract: It is often assumed by management in different workplaces that the people who work there acquire their training before they take up a job or that they are trained in their job. Learning is a lifelong process that should be embraced by all workers. Increasing interest is being placed on companies as learning organisations in which the employees collectively contribute to the improvement of the workplace enterprise. However, modest attention has been paid to the ways by which people learn in their work. This article indicates, based on considerable worksite research, that how people learn in their work is a complex process characterised by a range of variations. Management in different worksites needs to understand the diversity of approaches by workers to learning in their jobs and offer opportunities for such activities to be continuous, reflective, individualised and/or collective. A more effective workforce will result if the workers can maximise learning in their work.
TL;DR: The career destinations, by 1995, of doctors who qualified in the United Kingdom in 1977 are determined; the relation between their destinations and early career choice; and their intentions regarding retirement age are determined.
Abstract: Objective: To determine the career destinations, by 1995, of doctors who qualified in the United Kingdom in 1977; the relation between their destinations and early career choice; and their intentions regarding retirement age. Design:Postal questionnaire. Setting: United Kingdom. Subjects: All (n=3135) medical qualifiers of 1977. Main outcome measures: Current employment; year by year trends in the percentage of doctors who worked in the NHS, in other medical posts in the United Kingdom, abroad, in non-medical posts, outside medicine, and in part time work; intentions regarding retirement age. Results: After about 12 years the distribution of respondents by type of employment, and, for women, the percentage of doctors in part time rather than full time medical work, had stabilised. Of all 2997 qualifiers from medical schools in Great Britain, 2399 (80.0% (95% confidence interval 79.5% to 80.6%)) were working in medicine in the NHS in Great Britain 18 years after qualifying. Almost half the women (318/656)worked in the NHS part time. Of 1714 doctors in the NHS, 1125 intended to work in the NHS until normal retirement age, 392 did not, and 197 were undecided. Of the 1548 doctors for whom we had sufficient information, career destinations at 18 years matched the choices made at 1, 3, and 5 years in 58.9% (912), 78.2% (1211), and 86.6% (1341) of cases respectively. Conclusions: Planning for the medical workforce needs to be supported by information about doctors9 career plans, destinations, and whole time equivalent years of work. Postgraduate training needs to take account of doctors9
eventual choice of specialty (and the timing of this choice).
01 Jan 1998
TL;DR: Whitebook et al. as discussed by the authors conducted a nine-year National Child Care Staffing Study to assess changes in wages, benefits and turnover, and whether increases in public investment for child care have benefited the child care workforce; and the extent to which former welfare recipients are employed in center-based child care.
Abstract: Author(s): Whitebook, Marcy; Howes, Carollee; Phillips, Deborah | Abstract: In 1997, nine years after the original National Child Care Staffing Study, the Center for the Childcare Workforce interviewed directors at the centers still in operation to assess changes in wages, benefits and turnover; whether increases in public investment for child care have benefited the child care workforce; and the extent to which former welfare recipients are employed in center-based child care.
TL;DR: Risk factors for SSIs must be better understood to develop more effective prevention programs and a rising trend was observed as the number of people in the OR increased; however, it was not statistically significant.
Posted Content•
TL;DR: This article examined the impact of new technologies, the emergence of new management policies, the changing forms of employment contract, and the growth of job insecurity on people's experience of employment, focusing on the implications these developments have for the ways in which skills and work tasks have been changing, the nature of control at work, the degree of participation in decision-making and the flexibility demanded at work.
Abstract: This masterly new study presents the first large-scale empirical analysis of the changes in British work experiences and employment relationships between the 1980s and 1990s. Drawing on the Employment in Britain surveya national survey providing the richest source of evidence to date about individuals' experience of employmentit examines the impact of new technologies, the emergence of new management policies, the changing forms of employment contract, and the growth of job insecurity on people's experience of employment. The authors focus on the implications these developments have for the ways in which skills and work tasks have been changing, the nature of control at work, the degree of participation in decision-making, and the flexibility demanded at work. They assess whether there has been a tendency towards either a polarization or convergence of employment experiences between men and women, and between occupational classes. They offer fresh insight into how the changing quality of work in recent years has affected employee's involvement in their jobs and organizations, the stress they experience at work, and the propensity for absenteeism and staff turnover. While the study provides strong evidence of a marked trend towards upskilling, the authors take issue with the argument that a new type of employment relationship is emerging, arguing instead that the restructuring of the employment relationship has, in fact, reinforced traditional lines of division in the workforce.
TL;DR: In the absence of family-friendly policies and of a culture accepting of multiple commitments, employees may decide to leave the organization, resulting in loss of skill, disruption of client relationships, and significant dollar cost to the organization as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Workyforce demographics are changing and increasing in diversity. More women are entering the workforce and successfully attaining management positions. Many women choose to postpone child-rearing until their careers have been established and the decision to return to the same employer after childbirth is dependent on the ability to balance family and work commitments. An organization's need to attract and retain valued employees in a highly competitive labour market is a strong motivating factor for increased organizational awareness and action with regard to work/family conflict and family-friendly policies. Family-friendly policies have been reported to enhance an employee's quality of work life and to reduce absenteeism and turnover. In the absence of family-friendly policies and of a culture accepting of multiple commitments, employees may decide to leave the organization, resulting in loss of skill, disruption of client relationships, and significant dollar cost to the organization. This paper provi...
Posted Content•
TL;DR: The relationship between employment, education, opportunity, social exclusion and poverty are central to current policy debates as discussed by the authors, and the role of work in providing self-esteem and non-material parts of human well-being.
Abstract: The relationships between employment, education, opportunity, social exclusion and poverty are central to current policy debates. Atkinson argues that the concepts of poverty, unemployment and social exclusion are closely related, but are not the same. People may be poor without being socially excluded, and vice versa. Unemployment may cause poverty, but this can be prevented. Equally, marginal jobs do not ensure social inclusion. Britton argues that convential economic analysis misses a key part of the problem of unemployment: the role of work in providing self-esteem and non-material parts of human well-being. Hills examines whether new evidence on income mobility implies less worry about inequality and relative poverty. Some low income is transitory, but the 'poverty problem' discounting this remains 80-90 per cent of that shown by cross-section surveys. Machin finds that intergenerational mobility is limited in terms of earnings and education, and that childhood disadvantage has effects long into adult life and is an important factor in maintaining immobility of economic status across generations. Arulampalam and Booth suggest that there is a trade-off between expanding more marginal forms of employment and expanding the proportion of the workforce getting work-related training. Workers in temporary or short-term contracts, part-time, and non-unionised employment are less likely to receive work-related training. Green and colleagues compare 1986 and 1997 surveys to show that skill levels for British workers have been rising, not just in the qualifications needed to get jobs, but also in the skills actually used in them. There is no evidence of 'credentialism'.
TL;DR: The U.S. mental health workforce is varied and flexible, and the data on the supply of several specialists--psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, and clinical social workers--indicate that the distribution of mental health professionals varies widely by state.
Abstract: The U.S. mental health workforce is varied and flexible. The strong growth in supply of nonphysician mental health professionals, ranging from psychologists to “midlevel” professionals like social workers and nurse specialists, helps to offset the dwindling numbers of medical graduates entering the field of psychiatry. Primary care physicians often see patients who have some form of mental illness, which they are not always trained to recognize and treat. The data on the supply of several specialists—psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, and clinical social workers—indicate that the distribution of mental health professionals varies widely by state. The composition, supply, and distribution of workers in this field also affect the care of vulnerable populations. Broader policy questions, including the lack of parity between mental and physical health insurance coverage and barriers to entry by nonphysician professions, may limit the cost-effective expansion of this diverse and dynamic workforce.
01 Sep 1998
TL;DR: This report is a review of previous work into the extent, nature and causes of ill health in the NHS workforce and sets out recommendations and a ten-point action plan.
Abstract: This report, by the Partnership's support team, Sian Williams, Susan Michie and Shriti Pattani, is a review of previous work into the extent, nature and causes of ill health in the NHS workforce. The report, prefaced by a submission from the Partnership to the Secretary of State for Health, summarises the evidence base, draws attention to gaps where further research is required, and sets out recommendations and a ten-point action plan.
Book•
01 Jan 1998
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss the growth of job insecurity and job insecurity in part-time and temporary workers, and the role of job involvement, involvement, and mental health.
Abstract: 1 Introduction 2 Skill and the Quality of Work 3 Discretion and Control 4 Participation and Representation 5 The Growth of Job Insecurity 6 The Flexible Workforce? The Employment Conditions of Part-Time and Temporary Workers 7 Employment Commitment and Job Expectations 8 Job Involvement, Work Strain, and Psychological Health 9 Organizational Commitment 10 Labour Cost and Performance Conclusion
TL;DR: The study demonstrates the value of discrete-time survival analysis in addressing questions related to the tenure of primary care physicians in Community Health Centers, making it possible to use data from physicians whose Community Health Center careers began before or ended after a give measurement window.
Abstract: Objectives.This study used discrete-time survival analysis to estimate the tenure of primary care physicians in Community Health Centers (CHCs), to identify the changing risk of leaving Community Health Center employment as time passes, and to identify factors associated with a physician's likel
TL;DR: In this article, the extent of flexible working practices often called family-friendly working practices and evidence from published literature to address the question of whether we need more of these arrangements are considered.
TL;DR: Based on graduates' reports, it is concluded that employment difficulties are greatest among international medical graduates and vary by specialty and geographic region.
Abstract: Context.—Studies analyzing the physician workforce have concluded that the United
States is verging on a physician oversupply, yet we lack persuasive evidence
that this is resulting in physician underemployment and/or unemployment.Objective.—To determine the degree to which graduating residents have difficulty
finding or are unable to find employment in their primary career choices.Design.—Two 1-page surveys sent separately to residents and to program directors
to collect information on the employment status of residents who were completing
a graduate medical education program at the end of the 1995-1996 academic
year.Setting.—A total of 25067 resident physicians scheduled in the spring of 1996
to complete a residency program accredited by the Accreditation Council on
Graduate Medical Education, and 4569 program directors in 31 specialties and
subspecialties.Main Outcome Measure.—Both the graduates' employment status and the degree of difficulty they
experienced securing a practice position, as reported by resident physicians
and program directors.Results.—After 6 months of data collection, 12135 (48.4%) of 25067 resident physicians
responded to the survey. Of the respondents, 11200 had completed their training,
and 7628 (68.1%) were attempting to enter the workforce, 28.4% were seeking
additional training, and 3.5% were fulfilling their military obligations.
Of the 7628 resident physicians who sought employment, 67.3% obtained clinical
practice positions in their specialties, 15.5% took academic positions, 5.0%
found clinical positions in other specialties, 5.1% had other plans, and 7.1%
did not yet have positions but were actively looking. In addition, 22.4% of
resident physicians who found clinical positions reported significant difficulty
finding them. The subgroup reporting greater difficulty finding clinical positions
included international medical graduates (more than 40%), those completing
programs in the Pacific or East North Central region, and those in several
specialties. The 1996 graduating residents reported significantly higher rates
of difficulty finding suitable employment than program directors reported
for their graduates (22.4% vs 6.0%); however, the percentage of graduates
reported by both groups as entering the workforce was the same (68.1%). Program
directors reported an unemployment rate of only 1.2%, for their 1996 graduates,
which was less than the rate reported by the resident physicians (7.1%).Conclusions.—Resident physicians' direct reports of their employment-seeking experiences
differ from what program directors report. Program directors accurately determined
the number of residents pursuing further training; however, they did not have
complete information about the employment difficulties experienced by their
graduates. Based on graduates' reports, we conclude that employment difficulties
are greatest among international medical graduates and vary by specialty and
geographic region.
TL;DR: Maloney et al. as discussed by the authors studied the dynamics between the formal and informal sectors across a business cycle and a period of trade liberalization in Mexico (1987-93) and showed that transitions on informal employment, the size of the informal sector, and levels of mobility to be procyclical, increasing with upturns and decreasing with recessions.
Abstract: The informal sector behaves as an unregulated entrepreneurial sector rather than the disadvantaged segment of a dual labor market. Overall, it expands in upturns and contracts in downturns, though there is some evidence of queuing to enter the formal sector. Competing conceptions of the large, unprotected, informal workforce in developing countries differ greatly in their implications for the labor reform considered to be essential complements to trade liberalization and fair competition in international trade. Traditionally, the informal sector is viewed as the disadvantaged segment of a dual labor market segmented by legislated or union-induced rigidities and high labor costs in the protected (or formal) sector. In this view, the size of the informal sector is a testament to the inefficiencies in labor allocation and the magnitude of required reform. In cyclical downturns, the informal sector is thought to absorb displaced workers from the formal sector (with informal earnings falling relative to those in the formal sector) and then to contract again during recovery as the queue for good jobs shortens again. A recent, related view postulates a long-term trend in which large enterprises, confronted by heightened global competition, increasingly subcontracts to unprotected workers as a way to reduce costs and gain flexibility. This is particularly relevant in the debate about establishing common labor standards in regional trade agreements. Maloney reexamines the traditional view of the dual labor market by studying the dynamics between the formal and informal sectors across a business cycle and a period of trade liberalization in Mexico (1987-93). He shows conventional comparisons of earnings, even across time, to be unreliable tests for segmentation. As an alternative, he shows that transitions on informal employment, the size of the informal sector, and levels of mobility to be procyclical, increasing with upturns, and decreasing with recessions. He tests for, and finds, however, some evidence of queuing to enter formal employment. Overall, he contends, the informal sector behaves as an unregulated entrepreneurial sector rather than the disadvantaged wing of a dual labor market. There is evidence of increased subcontracting over time, with trade liberalization, but it is not clear that workers are worse off as a result. This paper - a product of the Poverty and Economic Management Unit, Latin America and the Caribbean Region - is part of a larger effort in the region to reexamine the role of the informal sector. The study was funded by the Bank`s Research Support Budget under the research project The Informal Sector in Mexico (RPO 680-59). The author may be contacted at wmaloney@worldbank.org.