A model of the relations among cognitive precursors, early numeracy skill, and mathematical outcomes was tested for 182 children from 4.5 to 7.5 years of age. The model integrates research from neuroimaging, clinical populations, and normal development in children and adults. It includes 3 precursor pathways: quantitative, linguistic, and spatial attention. These pathways (a) contributed independently to early numeracy skills during preschool and kindergarten and (b) related differentially to performance on a variety of mathematical outcomes 2 years later. The success of the model in accounting for performance highlights the need to understand the fundamental underlying skills that contribute to diverse forms of mathematical competence.

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Pathways to mathematics: longitudinal predictors of performance.

This article systematically reviews what is known empirically about the association between executive function and student achievement in both reading and math and critically assesses the evidence for a causal association between the two. Using meta-analytic techniques, the review finds that there is a moderate unconditional association between executive function and achievement that does not differ by executive function construct, age, or measurement type but finds no compelling evidence that a causal association between the two exists.

The Potential for School-Based Interventions That Target Executive Function to Improve Academic Achievement: A Review

http://geb.uni-giessen.de/geb/volltexte/2014/11090/pdf/KrajewskiSchneider_Exploring_the_impact_of_phon_awareness_2009.pdf

Exploring the Impact of Phonological Awareness, Visual-Spatial Working Memory, and Preschool Quantity--Number Competencies on Mathematics Achievement in Elementary School: Findings from a 3-year Longitudinal Study.

There is intense public interest in questions surrounding how children learn to read and how they can best be taught. Research in psychological science has provided answers to many of these questions but, somewhat surprisingly, this research has been slow to make inroads into educational policy and practice. Instead, the field has been plagued by decades of “reading wars.” Even now, there remains a wide gap between the state of research knowledge about learning to read and the state of public understanding. The aim of this article is to fill this gap. We present a comprehensive tutorial review of the science of learning to read, spanning from children’s earliest alphabetic skills through to the fluent word recognition and skilled text comprehension characteristic of expert readers. We explain why phonics instruction is so central to learning in a writing system such as English. But we also move beyond phonics, reviewing research on what else children need to learn to become expert readers and considering how this might be translated into effective classroom practice. We call for an end to the reading wars and recommend an agenda for instruction and research in reading acquisition that is balanced, developmentally informed, and based on a deep understanding of how language and writing systems work.

Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition From Novice to Expert (vol 19, pg 5, 2018)

Skills underlying mathematics: The role of executive function in the development of mathematics proficiency

We review significant empirical studies of the arithmetic abilities of children with dyslexia. These studies suggest that the academic impairments of children with dyslexia are not limited to reading and spelling, but also include aspects of mathematics. A consistent finding across a number of studies is that children with dyslexia have difficulty recalling number facts. The results of the reviewed studies are analysed, both in terms of the weak phonological representations hypothesis, and the triple-code theory of mathematical cognition. It is suggested that the phonological processing deficits of individuals with dyslexia impair aspects of mathematics that rely on the manipulation of verbal codes (e.g. counting speed, number fact recall), whilst other aspects of mathematics that are less reliant on verbal codes (e.g. estimation, subitising) are unimpaired. Suggestions for testing this hypothesis are put forward.

Do weak phonological representations impact on arithmetic development? A review of research into arithmetic and dyslexia.

Different components of working memory have different relationships with different mathematical skills

This study examines the relationships between phonological awareness, visual-spatial sketchpad (VSSP) functioning and arithmetic attainment in young children. A sample of 42 children had their VSSP functioning and phonological awareness assessed when they were 5 years old. Approximately 12 months later their nonverbal reasoning, vocabulary, arithmetic, and reading attainment were assessed. Together, VSSP functioning, phonological awareness, vocabulary, and nonverbal reasoning predicted 41% of the variation in the children's arithmetic attainment. Only phonological awareness and VSSP functioning were significant independent predictors. In contrast, only phonological awareness was a significant independent predictor of reading attainment. These findings are consistent with phonological awareness influencing both the development of reading and arithmetic, whilst VSSP functioning only impacts on arithmetic development.

Brief report—Phonological awareness and visual-spatial sketchpad functioning predict early arithmetic attainment: Evidence from a longitudinal study

The reading comprehension abilities of a group of dyslexic university students were compared with those of non-dyslexic university students. A 655-word passage, followed by literal and inferential questions, was used to measure reading comprehension. The text was designed to be syntactically complex, yet place relatively modest demands on decoding skills. Although dyslexic students performed at a similar level to the non-dyslexic students on the literal questions, their performance on the inferential questions was poorer. An index of the participants' ability to make inferences was calculated by subtracting the inferential question score from the literal question score. The groups differed significantly on this measure, indicating that the dyslexic students were specifically impaired in constructing inferences when processing complex text. It was concluded that dyslexic students in higher education have reading comprehension difficulties that cannot be accounted for by an inability to decode individual words in the text. The possible contribution that poor lexical automaticity and an impaired working memory make to this impairment is discussed. The implications for the assessment and support of dyslexic students are considered.

The reading comprehension abilities of dyslexic students in higher education.

Identifying dyslexia in adulthood presents particular challenges because of complicating factors such as acquisition of compensatory strategies, differing degrees of intervention and the problem of distinguishing dyslexic adults from those whose literacy difficulties have non-cognitive causes. One of the implications is that conventional literacy measures, per se, do not provide a satisfactory basis for screening for dyslexia in adulthood as some dyslexic adults have above-average literacy skills and some non-dyslexic adults have very poor literacy skills. This study examined an alternative approach to dyslexia screening, using three tests that depend heavily on phonological processing, lexical access and working memory, but which are not conventional measures of literacy. Using these tests, which are computer delivered, 70 dyslexic adults from three different types of educational institution were compared with 69 non-dyslexic adults from the same institutions. The results showed that the dyslexic and non-dyslexic groups were significantly different on all three computer-based tests, with an average effect size of 1.55. Adaptive versions of these tests were then created to reduce overall administration time for the suite to about 15 minutes. Analysis showed that the combined scaled scores from the adaptive versions of the three tests significantly discriminated the dyslexic from the non-dyslexic group with an increased effect size of 2.07 and with a sensitivity rate of 90.6% and a specificity rate of 90.0%. It was concluded that this approach is a valid and useful method of identifying dyslexia in adulthood, which, given the ease of administration to large numbers of adults, has noted advantages for education and employment.

Fiona R. Simmons

Papers

Do weak phonological representations impact on arithmetic development? A review of research into arithmetic and dyslexia.

Different components of working memory have different relationships with different mathematical skills

Brief report—Phonological awareness and visual-spatial sketchpad functioning predict early arithmetic attainment: Evidence from a longitudinal study

The reading comprehension abilities of dyslexic students in higher education.

Computerised Screening for Dyslexia in Adults