SUMMARY: A collection of 426 Haemophilus strains isolated from people with infectious diseases and from the normal flora of mucous membranes in humans and various animal species was studied in an attempt to revise and improve the taxonomy of the genus Haemophilus. The examinations included the determination of a number of biochemical and physiological properties, of which several had not previously been applied to the taxonomy of haemophili. The resulting data revealed many hitherto unrecognized characters of taxonomic significance, and several of the species can now be more accurately defined. The classification presented is supported by the DNA base composition of a large number of representative strains. A diagnostic key to the different taxa is presented. Haemophilus influenzae and H. parainfluenzae have been subdivided into a number of biotypes. It is possible to demonstrate a relationship between the individual biotypes of H. influenzae and the origin of the strains assigned to them. The results indicate that H. aegyptius, H. parahaemolyticus and H. paraphrohaemolyticus do not merit specific status. Four unnamed taxa of V-factor-dependent haemophili have been recognized. The name Haemophilus segnis is proposed for one of these taxa, which consists mainly of strains isolated from the human oral cavity. It is demonstrated that the name H. ducreyi has been used for different groups of bacteria, and that only one of these groups can legitimately be assigned to the genus Haemophilus. Haemolytic V-factor-dependent strains from swine, previously included in H. parahaemolyticus, are significantly different from strains of human origin and should be named H. pleuropneumoniae. None of the strains from swine and fowls were haemindependent. The relationships of these strains to the species H. suis and H. gallinarum, and to H. parasuis and H. paragallinarum are discussed. Haemophilus piscium is shown not to belong to the genus Haemophilus. The taxonomic position of H. aphrophilus is uncertain and its possible relationship to Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans requires further study. The positive correlation found between the ecology of the strains studied and their affiliation with the different taxa is discussed.

A Taxonomic Study of the Genus Haemophilus, with the Proposal of a New Species

This volume contains the edition of the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes that was presented in draft form and available for comment at the Plenary Session of the Fourteenth International Congress of Bacteriology and Applied Microbiology (BAM), Montreal, 2014, together with updated lists of conserved and rejected bacterial names and of Opinions issued by the Judicial Commission. As in the past it brings together those changes accepted, published and documented by the ICSP and the Judicial Commission since the last revision was published. Several new appendices have been added to this edition. Appendix 11 addresses the appropriate application of the Candidatus concept, Appendix 12 contains the history of the van Niel Prize, and Appendix 13 contains the summaries of Congresses.

International code of nomenclature of prokaryotes

Phylogenetic position of phytopathogens within the Enterobacteriaceae.

Summary: Serratia species, in particular Serratia marcescens, are significant human pathogens. S. marcescens has a long and interesting taxonomic, medical experimentation, military experimentation, and human clinical infection history. The organisms in this genus, particularly S. marcescens, were long thought to be nonpathogenic. Because S. marcescens was thought to be a nonpathogen and is usually red pigmented, the U.S. military conducted experiments that attempted to ascertain the spread of this organism released over large areas. In the process, members of both the public and the military were exposed to S. marcescens, and this was uncovered by the press in the 1970s, leading to U.S. congressional hearings. S. marcescens was found to be a certain human pathogen by the mid-1960s. S. marcescens and S. liquefaciens have been isolated as causative agents of numerous outbreaks and opportunistic infections, and the association of these organisms with point sources such as medical devices and various solutions given to hospitalized patients is striking. Serratia species appear to be common environmental organisms, and this helps to explain the large number of nosocomial infections due to these bacteria. Since many nosocomial infections are caused by multiply antibiotic-resistant strains of S. marcescens, this increases the danger to hospitalized patients, and hospital personnel should be vigilant in preventing nosocomial outbreaks due to this organism. S. marcescens, and probably other species in the genus, carries several antibiotic resistance determinants and is also capable of acquiring resistance genes. S. marcescens and S. liquefaciens are usually identified well in the clinical laboratory, but the other species are rare enough that laboratory technologists may not recognize them. 16S rRNA gene sequencing may enable better identification of some of the less common Serratia species.

Serratia Infections: from Military Experiments to Current Practice

In a study of the classification of members of the family Pasteurellaceae, the polyamine patterns of 101 strains were analyzed. These strains included the type strains of species belonging to the genera Actinobacillus, Haemophilus, and Pasteurella and additional strains of selected species, as well as numerous unnamed strains. Members of the genus Actinobacillus sensu stricto were characterized by the presence of 1,3-diaminopropane as the predominant compound. In the majority of the species of the genus Haemophilus sensu stricto 1,3-diaminopropane was also the major compound in the polyamine pattern. In contrast, Haemophilus intermedius subsp. gazogenes and Haemophilus parainfluenzae were characterized by high levels of 1,3-diaminopropane, cadaverine, and putrescine. These results confirmed the findings of Dewhirst et al. (F. E. Dewhirst, B. J. Paster, I. Olsen, and G. J. Fraser, Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. Abt. 1 Orig. 279:35–44, 1993), who demonstrated that H. parainfluenzae is phylogenetically only distantly related to the type species of the genus Haemophilus, Haemophilus influenzae. The phylogenetic diversity of the genus Pasteurella sensu stricto determined by Dewhirst et al. was also reflected to some extent by different polyamine patterns. The common characteristics found in Pasteurella multocida, Pasteurella canis, Pasteurella dagmatis, Pasteurella stomatis, and Pasteurella sp. strain B were high levels of putrescine and spermidine and the presence of the unusual triamine sym-norspermidine. Pasteurella avium, Pasteurella gallinarum, and Pasteurella volantium contained high concentrations of 1,3-diaminopropane and spermidine. Pasteurella langaa contained only high concentrations of 1,3-diaminopropane, and Pasteurella anatis was characterized by the presence of 1,3-diaminopropane as the predominant compound and high levels of putrescine and spermidine. Our data demonstrate that polyamine patterns are useful for discrimination within the family Pasteurellaceae.

Discrimination of Members of the Family Pasteurellaceae Based on Polyamine Patterns

The first report of the Committee on Characterization and Classification of Bacterial Types was published in the Journal of Bacteriology for September, 1917, vol. 2, p. 505, and was disdiscussed in some detail at the succeeding meeting of the Society. In this preliminary report the committee reviewed briefly the historical development of systematic bacteriology from Ehrenberg to Orla-Jensen, discussed the principles of botanical nomenclature with extensive citations from the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature, and presented a tentative system of classification of the Schizomycetes into families and genera. The detailed classification presented was criticised in certain respects in the full discussion which followed, and in later correspondence between the committee and other members of the Society, and it was felt desirable that the scheme presented in 1917 should be revised in certain particulars and made more definite and if possible supplemented by an index of genera showing where the commoner bacterial species should be placed. It was found impossible to complete this task and to prepare a list of approved genera for the 1918 meeting of the Society, but the task set before the committee has been at last completed and the committee is ready to make its final report at this time.

The Families and Genera of the Bacteria: Preliminary Report of the Committee of the Society of American Bacteriologists on Characterization and Classification of Bacterial Types.

The families and genera of the bacteria. V. Generic index of the commoner forms of bacteria.

THIS little book is a review of our present knowledge and views by a distinguished physiologist. It will be read with pleasure and interest by all scientific men, whether or not they agree with the author's endeavour to suggest that “modern science has brought us to the conception of a power eternal, infinite, unknowable . . . energizing all in the universe, the dead no less than the quick”.Philosophy of a Biologist.SirLeonardHill. Pp. viii + 88. (London: Edward Arnold and Co., 1930.) 3s. 6d. net.

Philosophy of a biologist.

An adequate explanation of the mechanism whereby a state of general well being is maintained has yet to be advanced. Certainly the explanation involving specific antibody response to specific antigenic stimulation can no longer be held to account for all known facts, although doubtless under given circumstances serologic reactions of this type assume immunologic importance. But whatever the role of antibody in resistance to infection-whether it be a prerequisite to, a concomitant of, or a consequence of immunity-the fact remains that a study of antibody inception and action offers as satisfactory an approach to the study of immune phenomena as is now available. And even though such studies serve to complicate, rather than to simplify, the problems, they are not without interest, since they may very well link serological, if not immunological, phenomena with physiological processes. The idea that the appearance of a given antibody in the serum implies, of necessity, an invasion by the homologous antigen has been effectively refuted through a study of the heterogenetic antibodies. That a sudden and marked increase in the titer of a given antibody can be developed through the introduction of diverse unrelated antigens has been disclosed most clearly by the anamnestic reaction. And, finally, it is of especial interest that increases in antibody titer, as well as a mobilization of cells which possess phagocytic power, can be effected through reactions which, perhaps, can best be designated as the conditioned reflex. Serological responses of this type are of significance, since they may be incited by extremely subtle stimuli. It is, indeed, conceivable that such an incitant may be of continuous application, thus serving to maintain serologic activity at a constant, and possibly high, level. Such responses, if immunological as well as serological, may be of great importance in the maintenance of an effective level of resistance. The conditioned reflex in its relation to strictly physiological processes requires no discussion, but it may be pertinent to point out

Hypersensitiveness and the Conditioned Reflex.

logical course. Certain passages in this section are superb examples of descriptiveness and brevity. Thus, while discussing consciousness of the self, a hypochondriac example is given: \". . . the individual summons his past experience with regard to bellyaches, his knowledge of appendicitis gained from the press, the experiences of his friends and the reports of men in high places who have died of cancer of the stomach. He projects himself into the future, visualizing the doctor's examination, the hospital, the operation, the lingering death in agonizing pain and the children left fatherless while the widow demonstrates her lack of rudimentary financial sense.\" There is no doubt that the authors have assembled an important body of information concerning frontal-lobe function and have utilized a relatively conservative surgical procedure to the benefit of many of their patients. The book should be of great interest to those working in the fields of neurophysiology and psychiatry. It will be of invaluable assistance to those who are responsible for or participating in \"shock\" or surgical treatment of mental diseases. WILLIAM J. GERMAN.

George H. Smith

Papers

The Families and Genera of the Bacteria: Preliminary Report of the Committee of the Society of American Bacteriologists on Characterization and Classification of Bacterial Types.

The families and genera of the bacteria. V. Generic index of the commoner forms of bacteria.

Philosophy of a biologist.

Hypersensitiveness and the Conditioned Reflex.

The Conquest of Bacteria.