Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

Land cover monitoring using remotely sensed data requires robust classification methods which allow for the accurate mapping of complex land cover and land use categories. Random forest (RF) is a powerful machine learning classifier that is relatively unknown in land remote sensing and has not been evaluated thoroughly by the remote sensing community compared to more conventional pattern recognition techniques. Key advantages of RF include: their non-parametric nature; high classification accuracy; and capability to determine variable importance. However, the split rules for classification are unknown, therefore RF can be considered to be black box type classifier. RF provides an algorithm for estimating missing values; and flexibility to perform several types of data analysis, including regression, classification, survival analysis, and unsupervised learning.

In this paper, the performance of the RF classifier for land cover classification of a complex area is explored. Evaluation was based on several criteria: mapping accuracy, sensitivity to data set size and noise. Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper data captured in European spring and summer were used with auxiliary variables derived from a digital terrain model to classify 14 different land categories in the south of Spain. Results show that the RF algorithm yields accurate land cover classifications, with 92% overall accuracy and a Kappa index of 0.92. RF is robust to training data reduction and noise because significant differences in kappa values were only observed for data reduction and noise addition values greater than 50 and 20%, respectively. Additionally, variables that RF identified as most important for classifying land cover coincided with expectations. A McNemar test indicates an overall better performance of the random forest model over a single decision tree at the 0.00001 significance level.

An assessment of the effectiveness of a random forest classifier for land-cover classification

. In this forum paper we discuss how soil scientists can help to reach the recently adopted UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the most effective manner. Soil science, as a land-related discipline, has important links to several of the SDGs, which are demonstrated through the functions of soils and the ecosystem services that are linked to those functions (see graphical abstract in the Supplement). We explore and discuss how soil scientists can rise to the challenge both internally, in terms of our procedures and practices, and externally, in terms of our relations with colleague scientists in other disciplines, diverse groups of stakeholders and the policy arena. To meet these goals we recommend the following steps to be taken by the soil science community as a whole: (i) embrace the UN SDGs, as they provide a platform that allows soil science to demonstrate its relevance for realizing a sustainable society by 2030; (ii) show the specific value of soil science: research should explicitly show how using modern soil information can improve the results of inter- and transdisciplinary studies on SDGs related to food security, water scarcity, climate change, biodiversity loss and health threats; (iii) take leadership in overarching system analysis of ecosystems, as soils and soil scientists have an integrated nature and this places soil scientists in a unique position; (iii) raise awareness of soil organic matter as a key attribute of soils to illustrate its importance for soil functions and ecosystem services; (iv) improve the transfer of knowledge through knowledge brokers with a soil background; (v) start at the basis: educational programmes are needed at all levels, starting in primary schools, and emphasizing practical, down-to-earth examples; (vi) facilitate communication with the policy arena by framing research in terms that resonate with politicians in terms of the policy cycle or by considering drivers, pressures and responses affecting impacts of land use change; and finally (vii) all this is only possible if researchers, with soil scientists in the front lines, look over the hedge towards other disciplines, to the world at large and to the policy arena, reaching over to listen first, as a basis for genuine collaboration.

/pdf/the-significance-of-soils-and-soil-science-towards-vxgvzodz14.pdf

The significance of soils and soil science towards realization of the United Nations sustainable development goals

Spatial variation in plant diversity has been attributed to heterogeneity in resource availability for many ecosystems. However, urbanization has resulted in entire landscapes that are now occupied by plant communities wholly created by humans, in which diversity may reflect social, economic, and cultural influences in addition to those recognized by traditional ecological theory. Here we use data from a probability-based survey to explore the variation in plant diversity across a large metropolitan area using spatial statistical analyses that incorporate biotic, abiotic, and human variables. Our prediction for the city was that land use, along with distance from urban center, would replace the dominantly geomorphic controls on spatial variation in plant diversity in the surrounding undeveloped Sonoran desert. However, in addition to elevation and current and former land use, family income and housing age best explained the observed variation in plant diversity across the city. We conclude that a functional relationship, which we term the “luxury effect,” may link human resource abundance (wealth) and plant diversity in urban ecosystems. This connection may be influenced by education, institutional control, and culture, and merits further study.

/pdf/socioeconomics-drive-urban-plant-diversity-4hoqg2j7dx.pdf

Socioeconomics drive urban plant diversity

The significance of soils and soil science towards realization of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

This paper examines the mid to late-Holocene (c. 6850–1160 cal. yr BP) environmental history of Sierra de Gador in southern Spain. The local vegetation dynamics are reconstructed through the palaeoecological record obtained from a lacustrine deposit situated at 1530 m. Various hypotheses are considered to explain the vegetation dynamics apparent in the palaeoecological evidence, including climatic change, fire occurrence and human activity. Although the vegetation in this region is sensitive to climatic change, threshold events driven by ecological factors are also apparent. Climatic events include a thermo-mesophytic optimum with abundance of deciduous trees and maximum lake water level found from c. 6850 to 5500 cal. yr BP. In contrast, changes in the frequency of major fire episodes appear to have shaped interspecific relationships and vegetation change, especially from c. 4200 cal. yr BP onwards. Biotic properties of the ecosystem such as the inertia of established tree populations, interconnected wit...

/pdf/holocene-vegetation-dynamics-fire-and-grazing-in-the-sierra-2htkyxbvr8.pdf

Holocene vegetation dynamics, fire and grazing in the Sierra de Gádor, southern Spain

The southeast of the Iberian Peninsula, more precisely, the province of Almeria, has the most important gypsum quarries in Spain. Despite the severe environmental impact of these quarries, so far little attention has been paid to either the effect on the flora, especially on the more restricted endemic taxa, or to the restoration of the habitats after the end of exploitation. It is our view that restoration of gypsum quarries should aim not only at correcting the visual impact of mining on the landscape, but should also attend to the biological impact of the quarrying. Although the ‘cicatrising’ potential of gypsophytes is already well known, not all the species are able to recolonise worked-out quarries. Using species abundances, all analysis clearly show that artificial rehabilitation results in very altered communities. The preservation of the gypsum flora merits prioritary protective strategies which, at least to some extent, would make gypsum mining and nature conservation compatible.

Gypsicolous flora, conservation and restoration of quarries in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula

Urban vegetation of Almerı́a City—a contribution to urban ecology in Spain

The development of a greenhouse agriculture in the traditionally impoverished region of Poniente de Almeria, on the Mediterranean coast of Spain, has caused an enormous rise in living standards. However, the environmental impact of this badly-planned growth threatens the every dynamics of the exploitation system. A special examination must be made of the use of the three major resources responsible for the functioning of greenhouse production and its impact on the ecosystems and particularly on the vegetation. These resources are: clayey soils, sand from fossil dunes and ground water. While the use of the clayey soils and sand have negative effects on the conservation of ecologically valuable communities found nowhere else in Europe, ground water overexploitation has produced an increase in salinity in most of the aquifers. Of these, sand has been by far the best monitored resource and restoration programmes have been implemented in the extraction zones. This survey deals with the recent evolution of areas where the arto (Maytenus senegalensis subsp. europaeus) and the sabina (Juniperus phoenicea subsp. turbinata) have long been the dominant species, although the presence of the former is nowadays notoriously diminished. The study is based on aerial photographs taken in 1957, 1977 and 1985, together with our own field work. Curiously enough, all this man-made process of degradation has stimulated ornithological diversity. Finally, we propose here some measures which aim to preserve the most important enclaves of these Mediterranean shrub formations, specially those of the arto, since sabina-dominated communities already belong to existing conservation areas.

Agricultural development vs biodiversity conservation: the Mediterranean semiarid vegetation in El Ejido (Almería, southeastern Spain)

http://ebd06.ebd.csic.es/pdfscazorla/Mota.et.al.2008.Flora.pdf

Juan F. Mota

Papers

Holocene vegetation dynamics, fire and grazing in the Sierra de Gádor, southern Spain

Gypsicolous flora, conservation and restoration of quarries in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula

Urban vegetation of Almerı́a City—a contribution to urban ecology in Spain

Agricultural development vs biodiversity conservation: the Mediterranean semiarid vegetation in El Ejido (Almería, southeastern Spain)

Dolomite flora of the Baetic Ranges glades (South Spain)