Thermoelectric materials are of interest for applications as heat pumps and power generators. The performance of thermoelectric devices is quantified by a figure of merit, ZT, where Z is a measure of a material's thermoelectric properties and T is the absolute temperature. A material with a figure of merit of around unity was first reported over four decades ago, but since then-despite investigation of various approaches-there has been only modest progress in finding materials with enhanced ZT values at room temperature. Here we report thin-film thermoelectric materials that demonstrate a significant enhancement in ZT at 300 K, compared to state-of-the-art bulk Bi2Te3 alloys. This amounts to a maximum observed factor of approximately 2.4 for our p-type Bi2Te3/Sb2Te3 superlattice devices. The enhancement is achieved by controlling the transport of phonons and electrons in the superlattices. Preliminary devices exhibit significant cooling (32 K at around room temperature) and the potential to pump a heat flux of up to 700 W cm-2; the localized cooling and heating occurs some 23,000 times faster than in bulk devices. We anticipate that the combination of performance, power density and speed achieved in these materials will lead to diverse technological applications: for example, in thermochemistry-on-a-chip, DNA microarrays, fibre-optic switches and microelectrothermal systems.

Thin-film thermoelectric devices with high room-temperature figures of merit

The efficiency of thermoelectric energy converters is limited by the material thermoelectric figure of merit (zT). The recent advances in zT based on nanostructures limiting the phonon heat conduction is nearing a fundamental limit: The thermal conductivity cannot be reduced below the amorphous limit. We explored enhancing the Seebeck coefficient through a distortion of the electronic density of states and report a successful implementation through the use of the thallium impurity levels in lead telluride (PbTe). Such band structure engineering results in a doubling of zT in p-type PbTe to above 1.5 at 773 kelvin. Use of this new physical principle in conjunction with nanostructuring to lower the thermal conductivity could further enhance zT and enable more widespread use of thermoelectric systems.

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/321/5888/554.full.pdf

Enhancement of Thermoelectric Efficiency in PbTe by Distortion of the Electronic Density of States

Thermoelectrics have long been recognized as a potentially transformative energy conversion technology due to their ability to convert heat directly into electricity. Despite this potential, thermoelectric devices are not in common use because of their low efficiency, and today they are only used in niche markets where reliability and simplicity are more important than performance. However, the ability to create nanostructured thermoelectric materials has led to remarkable progress in enhancing thermoelectric properties, making it plausible that thermoelectrics could start being used in new settings in the near future. Of the various types of nanostructured materials, bulk nanostructured materials have shown the most promise for commercial use because, unlike many other nanostructured materials, they can be fabricated in large quantities and in a form that is compatible with existing thermoelectric device configurations. The first generation of these materials is currently being developed for commercialization, but creating the second generation will require a fundamental understanding of carrier transport in these complex materials which is presently lacking. In this review we introduce the principles and present status of bulk nanostructured materials, then describe some of the unanswered questions about carrier transport and how current research is addressing these questions. Finally, we discuss several research directions which could lead to the next generation of bulk nanostructured materials.

Bulk nanostructured thermoelectric materials: current research and future prospects

High-efficiency thermoelectric (TE) materials are important for power-generation devices that are designed to convert waste heat into electrical energy.They can also be used in solid-state refrigeration devices.The conversion of waste heat into electrical energy may play an important role in our current challenge to develop alternative energy technologies to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. An overview of various TE phenomena and materials is provided in this issue of MRS Bulletin. Several of the current applications and key parameters are defined and discussed.Novel applications of TE materials include biothermal batteries to power heart pacemakers, enhanced performance of optoelectronics coupled with solid-state TE cooling, and power generation for deep-space probes via radioisotope TE generators.A number of different systems of potential TE materials are currently under investigation by various research groups around the world, and many of these materials are reviewed in the articles in this issue.These range from thin-film superlattice materials to large single-crystal or polycrystalline bulk materials, and from semiconductors and semimetals to ceramic oxides.The phonon-glass/electron-crystal approach to new TE materials is presented, along with the role of solid-state crystal chemistry.Research criteria for developing new materials are highlighted.

/pdf/thermoelectric-materials-phenomena-and-applications-a-bird-s-2e5bqpy32n.pdf

Thermoelectric materials, phenomena, and applications : A bird's eye view

Thermoelectric effects enable direct conversion between thermal and electrical energy and provide an alternative route for power generation and refrigeration. Over the past ten years, the exploration of high-performance thermoelectric materials has attracted great attention from both an academic research perspective and with a view to industrial applications. This review summarizes the progress that has been made in recent years in developing thermoelectric materials with a high dimensionless figure of merits (ZT) and the related fabrication processes for producing nanostuctured materials. The challenge to develop thermoelectric materials with superior performance is to tailor the interconnected thermoelectric physical parameters — electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity — for a crystalline system. Nanostructures provide a chance to disconnect the linkage between thermal and electrical transport by introducing some new scattering mechanisms. Recent improvements in thermoelectric efficiency appear to be dominated by efforts to reduce the lattice thermal conductivity through nanostructural design. The materials focused in this review include Bi–Te alloys, skutterudite compounds, Ag–Pb–Sb–Te quaternary systems, half-Heusler compounds and some high-ZT oxides. Possible future strategies for developing thermoelectric materials are also discussed.

/pdf/high-performance-nanostructured-thermoelectric-materials-3nesq24a9k.pdf

High-performance nanostructured thermoelectric materials

Semiconductor Thermoelements and Thermoelectric Cooling

The relative orientation of the magnetic and electric fields in a certain co-ordinate system is of great importance since E − B,EB are invariants upon Lorents[1] relativistic transformation. In this paper we represent the complete set of Maxwell equations by a single equation using Riemann-Silberstein[2, 3] complex vector F = E+ iB whose product contains the both invariants. We start from the conventional Maxwell equations set:

2 2 3 A pr 2 01 8 Riemann-Silberstein representation of the Maxwell equations set

A stability problem for the current state of the strong coupling superconductor has been considered within the lattice Ginzburg-Landau model. The critical current problem for a thin superconductor film is solved within the London limit taking into account the crystal lattice symmetry. The current dependence on the order parameter modulus is computed for the superconductor film for various coupling parameter magnitudes. The field penetration problem is shown to be described in this case by the one-dimensional sine-Gordon equation. The field distribution around the vortex is described at the same time by the two-dimensional elliptic sine-Gordon equation.

A. F. Ioffe

Papers

Semiconductor Thermoelements and Thermoelectric Cooling

2 2 3 A pr 2 01 8 Riemann-Silberstein representation of the Maxwell equations set

3 0 D ec 2 00 3 London ’ s limit for the lattice superconductor