1 Introduction.- 1.1 Goal of CS Catheterization.- 1.2 Objective of the Study.- 2 The Organization of the Cardiac Venous Systems.- 2.1 The Greater (Major) Cardiac Venous System.- 2.2 The Smaller (Minor) Cardiac Venous System.- 2.3 The Compound Form of Cardiac Venous Vessels: Intramural Sinuses and Tunnels.- 3 Nomenclatur.- 3.1 English and Latin Versions.- 3.2 Abbreviations.- 3.3 Commonly Used Unofficial or Alternative Terms and Synonyms for the Cardiac Veins.- 4 Microanatomy of the Coronary Sinus.- 4.1 Anatomy, Position, and Topography.- 4.2 Surface Anatomy.- 4.3 Length and Shape.- 4.4 Diameter, Area of Cross-Section, Circumference, and Volume.- 4.5 Elevation, Curvature, and Ostial Angle.- 4.6 The Ostial Valve.- 4.7 Enlargement of the CS, Aneurysm of the CS.- 4.8 Enlargement of the CS Associated with Persistent Left Superior Vena Cava.- 4.9 Enlargement of the CS Associated with Ostial Occlusion.- 4.10 Duplication of the CS (Sinus Coronarius 'Duplex').- 4.11 Absence of the CS.- 5 The Myocardial Cover of the Coronary Sinus and Related Veins.- 5.1 The Myocardial Cover of the CS.- 5.1.1 Peculiarity.- 5.2 The Left (Distal) Boundary of the Myocardial Coat of the CS and the Myocardial Cuff of the Terminal GCV.- 5.2.1 The Myocardial Coat of the CS.- 5.2.2 The Myocardial Cuff of the Terminal GCV.- 5.3 The Right (Proximal) Boundary of the Myocardial Coat of the CS.- 5.4 Isolated Myocardial Belts in the Terminal Portions of Other Cardiac Veins.- 5.5 'Free' Myocardial Cords in the Left Posterior Coronary Sulcus.- 5.6 The Proximal Origin of the CS and Its Landmarks.- 5.6.1 The OV Is the Only Exact Peripheral Landmark for the Origin of the CS.- 5.6.2 Clinical Significance of Accessory Myocardial Cuffs, Belts, and Cords.- 6 The Anatomy of the Veins Draining the Myocardium of Both Ventricles.- 6.1 The Ventricular Cardiac Veins in General.- 6.1.1 The Apical Venous Network.- 6.1.2 Venous Valves.- 6.1.3 Left and Right V entricular Veins.- 6.1.4 Left and Right Atrial Veins.- 6.2 Frequency and Distribution Pattern of the Tributaries of the CS.- 6.3 The Great Cardiac Vein and the Anterior Interventricular Vein.- 6.4 S-Shaped (Sigmoid) Course of the Great Cardiac Vein.- 6.5 Intramyocardial Course of, or Myocardial Bridge Over, the Subepicardial Veins.- 6.6 Aberrant Course of the Anterior Interventricular Part of the Great Cardiac Vein.- 6.7 The Ostial (Terminal) Valve of the Great Cardiac Vein.- 6.8 The Oblique Vein of the Left Atrium.- 6.9 The Posterior Interventricular Vein.- 6.9.1 Ostial Valves.- 6.10 The Septal Veins.- 6.10.1 Anterior and Posterior Territories of the Interventricular Septum.- 6.10.2 Left Superior Septal Vein.- 6.10.3 Anterior Septal Veins.- 6.10.4 Right Superior Septal Vein.- 6.10.5 Venous Valves (Astklappen).- 6.10.6 Venous Drainage of the AV Junction.- 6.11 The Posterior Vein(s) of the Left Ventricle.- 6.12 The Small Cardiac Vein.- 6.13 The Left Marginal Vein.- 6.14 The Right Marginal Vein.- 6.15 The Anterior Cardiac Veins.- 6.16 The Venous Drainage of the Papillary Muscles.- 6.17 The Ostial Valves of Cardiac Veins.- 6.18 The Relationships Between Cardiac Veins and Coronary Arteries.- 6.19 The Veins of the Visceral Serosa.- 6.20 Venous Anastomoses.- 6.21 The Veins of the Vasa Vasorum of the Coronary Arteries, Aorta Ascendens and Pulmonary Trunk.- 7 The Anatomy of Veins Draining the Myocardium of Both Atria.- 7.1 The Veins of the Left Atrium.- 7.1.1 Posterolateral Veins of the LA.- 7.1.2 Posterosuperior Veins of the LA.- 7.1.3 Anteroseptal and Posteroseptal Veins of the LA.- 7.1.4 Ostial Valves of the Anteroseptal and Posteroseptal Veins of the LA.- 7.1.5 Intramural Sinuses of the Atrial Walls.- 7.1.6 Extracardiac Intercommunications.- 7.2 The Veins of the Right Atrium.- 7.2.1 Small Right Atrial Veins.- 7.2.2 Venous Drainage of the SA Node.- 7.2.3 Venous Drainage of the AV Node and Bundle Area.- 7.2.4 Venous Tunnel or Sinus of the Right Atrium.- 7.2.5 The Ostia of the VTRA.- 7.2.6 Topographical Relationship of the VTRA.- 7.2.7 Explanation for the Existence of the VTRA.- 8 The Significance of the Coronary Sinus and Cardiac Veins in Cardiology.- 8.1 The Anatomical Basis for Reperfusion of the CS and Selected Cardiac Veins and Imaging of the Coronary Venous Drainage System Using CT.- 8.1.1 Purpose of Reperfusion Technique.- 8.1.2 Basis of CS Catheterization.- 8.1.3 Failure and Limitation ofCS Catheterization.- 8.1.4 Computed Tomography.- 8.1.5 Coronary Venography.- 8.1.6 The Significance of Ostial Valves.- 8.1.7 The Significance of the Smallest Cardiac.- 8.1.8 Concept of the Hydraulic System of the Intramural and Subendocardial Sinuses in the Cardiac Walls and in the Heart Chambers.- 8.2 Anatomical Peculiarities Supporting Venous Reperfusion via the CS.- 8.3 Anatomical Hindrances to Catheterization of the CS and of Cardiac Veins.- 8.3.1 The Ostial Valve of the IVC.- 8.3.2 Persistent Left SVC.- 8.3.3 Aneurysm of the RA, Aneurysm of the CS.- 8.3.4 Rigid Ostial Valves of the CS and GCV.- 8.3.5 Congenital Occlusion of the Atrial Ostium of the CS.- 8.3.6 Openings of the PIV and PVLV Near to the Atrial Ostium of the CS.- 8.3.7 The ACVs and the RMV Empty Directly into the RA.- 8.3.8 Opening of the PIV Directly into the RA.- 8.3.9 The Anterior Interventricular Artery Crosses over the GCV.- 8.3.10 Intramyocardial Course of the AIV.- 8.3.11 Uni- or Bicuspid Valves of the Anterior and Posterior Septal Veins.- 8.3.12 Ectopic Origin and Aberrant Course of the AIV.- 9 The Cardiac Venous System Seen Three-Dimensionally: An Arrangement of Veins Which Favors Reperfusion Efficacy.- 9.1 The Efficiency of Ostial Valves.- 9.2 Prospect.- 10 Summary.- References.

The venous drainage of the human myocardium.

Implication of a Persistent Left Superior Vena Cava in Transvenous Pacemaker Therapy and Cardiac Hemodynamic Monitoring

Potentially significant associations are presented between anomalous systemic venous return (including both left superior vena cava and left hepatic venous drainage to the coronary sinus), a history of atrial fibrillation and a forme fruste of cor triatriatum in an elderly woman. Lack of associated structural defects or functional deficits makes it difficult to assess the frequency of occurrence in the general population of bilateral superior venae cavae in association with a persistent left hepatic vein draining into the coronary sinus. However, the potential for these systemic venous anomalies needs to be considered when unexplained arrhythmias are encountered. More specifically, the size of the coronary sinus needs to be assessed in patients with arrhythmia.

Persistent left superior vena cava and associated structural and functional considerations.

Balloon occlusion of a persistent left superior vena cava in the preoperative evaluation of systemic venous return

Permanent transvenous pacing has become a common method of treatment for a variety of conduction defects. Successful permanent pacing depends greatly upon proper positioning of the electrode, which can be very difficult in the presence of anomalies of venous return. This report presents a case of left superior vena cava requiring permanent pacing. The incidence, clinical significance, and diagnosis of this venous anomaly are reviewed, and the problems and techniques encountered in pacemaking via a left superior vena cava are discussed.

Transvenous pacing by way of a left superior vena cava.

TRICUSPID atresia constitutes approximately 3 per cent of autopsied cases of cyanotic congenital heart disease and 3 per cent of clinically diagnosed congenital heart lesions in patients under 14 y...

A Goldblatt

Papers

Left-superior-vena-cava steal syndrome.