The use of surfactants in households and industries is inevitable and so is their discharge into the environment, especially into the water bodies as effluents. Being surface‐active agents, their utilization is mostly seen in soaps, detergents, personal care products, emulsifiers, wetting agents, etc. Anionic surfactants are the most used class. These surfactants are responsible for the foam and froth in the water bodies and cause potential adverse effects to both biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem. Surfactants are capable of penetrating the cell membrane and thus cause toxicity to living organisms. Accumulation of these compounds has been known to cause significant gill damage and loss of sight in fish. Alteration of physiological and biochemical parameters of water decreases the amount of dissolved oxygen and thus affecting the entire ecosystem. Microbes utilizing surfactants as substrates for energy form the basis of the biodegradation of these compounds. The main organisms for surfactant biodegradation, both in sewage and natural waters, are bacteria. Several Pseudomonas and Bacillus spp. have shown efficient degradation of anionic surfactants namely: sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), linear alkylbenzene sulphonate (LAS), sodium dodecylbenzenesulphonate (SDBS). Also, several microbial consortia constituting Alcaligenes spp., Citrobacter spp., etc. have shown efficacy in the degradation of surfactants. The biodegradation efficiency studies of these microbes/microbial consortia would be of immense help in formulating better solutions for the bioremediation of surfactants and help to reduce their potential environmental hazards.

Surfactant pollution, an emerging threat to ecosystem: Approaches for effective bacterial degradation

In the present study, the water quality variables of the Idundu River were assessed by evaluating the Plankton community. Three sampling stations: Station 1 (minimal fishing), station 2 (artisanal fishing area/ cluster of human settlements) and station 3 (fisheries landing area, dredging) representing regions along the stretch of the watershed with considerable economic importance and anthropogenic activity, were selected within the period of six (6) months. The study determines plankton distribution, diversity and some water quality variables of Idundu River, and how they influence plankton abundance. The results of this study reveal that water quality variables (mean ± SD) of the River were pH (6.526 ± 0.104), surface water temperature (26.224 ± 0.106˚C), dissolved oxygen (1.474 ± 0.135 mg/l), nitrate (0.026 ± 0.001 mg/l) and phosphate (0.015 ± 0.000 mg/l). All the water quality variables assessed were within the acceptable range. A total of 23 phytoplankton species belonging to five families, totalling a numerical abundance of 368 individuals/L were observed. Bacillariophyceae was the most abundant phytoplankton family (63.81%), followed by Chlorophyceae (17.41%), Dinophyceae (7.87%), Cryptophyceae (9.77%), and the least abundant was Zygnemophyceae accounting for (1.08%). A total of 20 zooplankton species belonging to five phyla, totalling a numerical abundance of 140 individuals/L were observed. Rotifera was the most abundant zooplankton phylum (35.69%), Arthropoda (30.62%), Ciliophora (17.79%) and Annelida (12.15%); the least abundant was Nemata (2.85%). Principal component analysis (PCA) for plankton organisms showed that phytoplankton were more homogenously distributed than zooplankton during the study period. Shannon Wiener and Margalef’s diversity index showed that the River is in a healthy condition and the equitability level was high across all the stations, indicating even plankton distribution.

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Ecological Approach of Plankton Responses to Water Quality Variables of a Tropical River, South-Eastern Nigeria: A Bio-indicator-based Community Assessment of Idundu River

Every year the use of detergent is increasing and safety concerns about detergent are also increasing. However, in developing countries safety concerns about detergent is still a neglected topic. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) of the general public towards the use of detergent. An online-based cross-sectional study was performed via sharing self-developed online KAP questionnaires and filled out by participants. The basic knowledge about detergent, its safety concern, and other related questions were used for the KAP assessments. A total of 510 participants took part in this study. The participants had mixed responses to the questions such as; [1] the majority were using powder detergent (87.45%); [2] perceptions about detergent (an agent for cleansing clothes (48.04%), a chemical agent (39.02%)); [3] the purpose of using detergent (to remove dirt (48.04%), for easiness of cleaning (45.1%)); [4] Original Research Article Joshi et al.; CJAST, 39(36): 111-118, 2020; Article no.CJAST.62694 112 the cost of detergent (affordable (80%), expensive (10.98%)); [5] the selection of detergent (based on previous satisfaction (60.98%), brand name (19.02%)); [6] cause of not using particular brand detergent next time is (poor quality (75.1%), expensive (18.04%)); [7] mostly used brands (Wheel (35.69%), Ghadi (16.08%) and Patanjali (7.06%)); [8] safety concerns (only 8.82% used gloves during using detergent and only 50% realized the detergent can harm their skin, 67.84% have awareness that the detergent contaminates the environment, 10% experienced dryness of skin, 0.98% redness/allergy)); [9] 77.06% don’t have a washing machine; [10] soaking practice (21.37% start washing immediately after the addition of detergent, only 32.16% soak clothes for 20 to 60 minutes)); [11] waste water management (80.4% throw the detergent waste water to the normal sewage, 19.6% throw separately); [12] 37.45% always use soap along with powder detergent while washing clothes; [13] detergent stability problem (absorb moisture and get wet easily (64.31%) color change (16.08%) and dryness (10.78%)); [14] 28.63% prefer colorful detergent and 42.94% observed the color transfer from detergent to clothes; only 37.45% have experience of using herbal detergent; [15] laundry detergent also used for other purposes (wash dishes (19.61%), to wash hands (5.49%) and even body washing (1.76%)); [16] 19.61% of the participants’ mothers wash their clothes; [17] the majority of the participants realized the dirtiness of country people is due to poverty (58.04%). This study shows moderate awareness regarding the KAP of detergent use, management, and toxicity. Therefore, it can be derived that continuous education is needed about detergent.

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Detergent Use Practices in Nepal: A Cross-Sectional Online Survey

Background: The toxic effect of Nittol detergent on the haematological parameters of the African catfish (C. gariepinus) sub-adult was investigated. The experiment was conducted in triplicates forthe four treatments. Behavioral changes in fish exposed to different concentrations of Nittol detergent ranged from erratic swimming, moribund movement, jumping and lack of balance. Similar changes were not observed in the control throughout the experiment. Nittol detergent is composed of linear alkyl benzene sulphonate (LABS), sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate, sodium per-borate and sodium silicate (perfume) as active ingredients. The fish were exposed to concentrations 1.0 g/L, 2.0 g/L, 3.0 g/L and 4.0g/L. At 1.0 g/l concentration, the mean mortality was 80% with an initial erratic swimming. \nResults: It was observed that mean mortality increased drastically with increasing Nittol Detergent  concentrations. At a concentration 3.0 g/L, total mortality was observed within 72 hours of exposure preceding moribund swimming while total mortality was observed at 4.0 g/L. The concentration at which 50% of the experimental fishes were killed (LC50) was 0.9 g/L. Results from statistical analysis indicated that mortality varied significantly with concentrations as higher values recorded higher mortality rates. However, mean values showed the highest mortality (74%) with Nittol detergent. Haematological results obtained from blood profile analysis showed various degrees of alterations and changes in values when compared to the control. The PCV of the exposed fish was 26% when compared to 27% in the control, HB was 8.9 (GDL) as against 9.0 Gdl of the control, total WBC was 640 x 109/L as against 1280 x 109/L of the control. The RBC reading was 4.7 compared to 5.3 (mm3) of the control. For the differential counts, the lymphocyte was 80%. Neutrophils were 4 % and monocyte 16% compared to 62%, 8% and 30% of the control respectively. The results revealed a significant decrease in PCV counts for 8.0, 16.0, 25.0, and 50.0ml/l concentration when compared to the control. There revealed significant decrease of haemoglobin count for 8.0 ml/l group (p>0.05) and significant decrease for 16.0 ml/l, 25.0 ml/l and 50.0 ml/l groups (p<0.05), when compared to the control. The results showed insignificant decrease of RBC count for 1.0 g/l (p>0.05) and a significant decrease for the 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 g/l groups (p<0.05), compared to the control. This means that as the toxicant concentration increased, the fish red blood count decreased the more. This further implies that at higher concentration of, RBC reduces correspondingly. Lymphocytes, monocytes, and neutrophils in the control set showed (apparently normal cell after) hematoxylin and eosin staining. Differential blood samples exposed to various concentrations of Nittol Detergent showed denatured cells, haemolysis and blood cell shrinkage. \nConclusion: It was therefore concluded that Nittol Detergent has significant toxic effect on the haematological parameters of C. gariepinus and recommended the control disposal of this detergent into aquatic bodies to reduce the negative impact on the blood quality of aquatic organisms.

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Toxic Potentials of Nittol Detergent on Haematological Parameters of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in Nigeria

Detergen merupakan limbah domestik yang paling umum mengkontaminasi lingkungan perairan dan menyebabkan berbagai toksisitas terhadap organisme akuatik sehingga mempengaruhi aktivitas budidaya, salah satunya pada budidaya ikan nila. Detergen memiliki sifat iritan dan toksik yang dapat mengakibatkan perubahan struktural pada organ tubuh ikan. Insang merupakan organ yang rentan terdampak polutan karena terjadi kontak langsung dengan kontaminan dalam air. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui gambaran histologi insang benih ikan nila yang terpapar detergen pada periode paparan yang berbeda. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di laboratorium akuakultur Universitas Diponegoro Semarang, menggunakan metode penelitian rancangan acak lengkap dengan empat perlakuan dan tiga ulangan. Ikan uji yang digunakan adalah benih ikan nila berumur ±2 bulan dengan bobot rata-rata 1,24±0,3 gr/ekor. Dosis detergen yang digunakan adalah dosis subletal yaitu 2,4 mg/L yang ditambahkan pada setiap perlakuan kecuali perlakuan A (kontrol). Lama paparan pada setiap perlakuan A, B, C, dan D secara berturut-turut yaitu 45, 15, 30, dan 45 hari. Parameter yang diukur meliputi gambaran histopatologi insang, gejala klinis, mortalitas dan kualitas air. Tingkat kerusakan insang ditentukan dengan metode skoring dan dianalisis menggunakan uji Kruskal Wallis, apabila terdapat perbedaan yang nyata maka dilanjutkan dengan uji Mann-Whitney U. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa perbedaan periode paparan detergen memberikan perubahan histopatologi insang berupa edema, hipertrofi, hiperplasia dan fusi dengan tingkat kerusakan terparah pada perlakuan D (rata-rata skor 4), diikuti perlakuan C (rata-rata skor 3), perlakuan B (rata-rata skor 1,33) dan perlakuan A (rata-rata skor 0). Hasil kelulushidupan terendah yaitu pada perlakuan D sebesar 75,56% dan tertinggi pada perlakuan A sebesar 95,56%. Nilai kualitas air selama penelitian masih berada dikisaran yang layak yaitu DO 3,5-8,7 mg/l, suhu 25-29°C dan pH 7,1-7,9. Kesimpulan dari penelitian ini adalah perbedaan periode paparan detergen memberikan pengaruh nyata terhadap histopatologi insang benih ikan nila. Tingkat kerusakan insang tertinggi hingga terendah yaitu perlakuan D, diikuti perlakuan C, perlakuan B dan perlakuan A.

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Pengaruh Perbedaan Periode Paparan Detergen Terhadap Histopatologi Insang Benih Ikan Nila (Oreochromis niloticus)

Toxicity of Nittol detergent on the histopathology of the African catfish (C. gariepinus) sub adult was investigated. The experiment was conducted in triplicates of four treatments. Behavioral changes in fish exposed to different concentrations of Nittol detergent ranged from erratic swimming, moribund movement, jumping and lack of balance. Similar changes were not observed in the control throughout the experiment. Nittol detergent is composed of linear Alkyl Benzene Sulphonate (LABS), sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate, sodium perborate and sodium silicate (perfume) as active ingredients. The fish were exposed to concentrations 1.0 g/L, 2.0 g/L, 3.0 g/L and 4.0 g/L. At 1.0 g/l concentration, the mean mortality was 80% with an initial Original Research Article Ivon et al.; ARRB, 35(4): 1-11, 2020; Article no.ARRB.55171 2 erratic swimming. It was observed that mean mortality increased drastically with increase in concentration of the pollutant (Nittol detergent). At concentration 3.0 g/L, total mortality was observed within 72 hours of exposure preceding moribund swimming while total mortality was observed in 4.0 g/L. The concentration at which 50% of the experimental fish were killed (LC50) was 1.9 g/L. Results from statistical analysis indicated that mortality varied (p<0.05) significantly with concentrations as higher values recorded higher mortalities. However, mean values showed highest mortality (74%) with Nittol detergent. Histopathology of the liver of fish exposed to Nittol after 96hrs revealed severe damage and necrosis of the liver cells when compared with the control which had a normal distribution of hepatic cells. Similarly, results from histopathology of the gills of the exposed fish to Nittol detergent revealed fusion and damages to gills lamellae when compared with the control which has normal distribution of the gills lamellae. Severe changes in the epithelia of the gill arch were also observed. Findings from histopathology of the intestine also revealed severe damages to the intestinal walls and mucosa when compared with the control. Images from the histopathology of the gills revealed severe damages to the gill lamellae by the Nittol detergent whereas the control showed a normal distribution of gills lamellae. And in the same vein, histopathology result on the effect of Nittol Detergent on the intestine of the exposed fish revealed chronic damages to the intestinal mucosa when viewed with motic electron microscope at x10 magnification. It was therefore concluded that Nittol Detergent causes significant and severe damages to C. gariepinus and recommended the control disposal of this detergent into aquatic bodies to reduce the negative impact on the histopathology of aquatic organisms.

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A. N. Nkang

Papers

Assessment of Histopathological Damages in African Catfish (Clarias garienpinus) as Influenced by Nittol Detergent Aquatic Pollution in Nigeria

Toxic Potentials of Nittol Detergent on Haematological Parameters of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in Nigeria