4 Complete article, including its appendix, is available with the corresponding author Abstract: An important biological challenge today is the conservation of biodiversity. Biogeography, the study of the distribution patterns of organisms, is an important tool for this challenge. Endemism, the co-occurrence of several species unique to the same area, has important implications for the preservation of biodiversity, since many areas of endemism are also areas with large human impact. More rigorously defined, areas of endemism are historical units of distributional congruence of monophyletic taxa. These areas often assumed to be due to nonrandom historical events that favored conditions associated with high rates of speciation. Thus, understanding endemism and the delimitation of endemic areas has important implications for conservation. Today, most studies delimit areas of endemism by superimposing maps of distribution for various species. This approach suffers from arbitrary delimitations, however, when a great distributional data is used. In this paper we used the method of Parsimony Analysis of Endemicity (PAE) based on georeferenced quadrats in order to delimit areas of endemism. This modality of the method is important due to its testable nature and can also be used to infer area relationships. We applied the method to raw distributional data from 19 unrelated taxa to delimit general patterns of endemism in the Neotropical Region and in the Atlantic forest domain using different grid scales. Neotropical areas found are comprised over the Panama region, northern Andean region and the Atlantic forest. Atlantic forest showed a major division into two distinct components (northern x southern). Endemic areas delimited using smaller scale grids on the Atlantic forest should be considered for conservation priorities once they showed endemism at regional and local scales. The results were also compared to other studies using different taxa and methods. Finally, some considerations on the analysis scale and future perspectives of the method are presented.

https://www.scielo.br/pdf/bn/v8n4/a02v8n4.pdf

Detection of areas of endemism on two spatial scales using Parsimony Analysis of Endemicity (PAE): the Neotropical region and the Atlantic Forest

Areas of endemism are the smallest units of biogeographical analysis. One of its definitions is that these areas harbor organisms with restricted distributions caused by non random historical factors. The aim of this study was to examine historical relationships among areas of endemism in the Neotropics using Brooks Parsimony Analysis (BPA). We applied BPA to 12 unrelated taxa distributed within two sets of endemic areas in order to: (1) compare the proposed endemic area classifications; (2) examine whether Amazonia and Atlantic Forest are true biogeographic units and, (3) examine whether the inclusion of open area formations influence area relationships of the surrounding forests. General area cladograms revealed a basal split between Amazonian and Atlantic forests, suggesting that these areas have been isolated for a long period of time. All Atlantic forest endemic areas formed a monophyletic cluster, showing a sequence of vicariant events from north to south. The hypothesis that Amazonia is a composite area, made up of different historical units, is herein corroborated. When Cerrado and Caatinga (grasslands and savannas) are included, internal area relationships within Amazonia change, indicating that area classification schemes comprising forests and open formations should be preferred given the complementary history of these areas.

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Historical relationships among areas of endemism in the tropical South America using Brooks Parsimony Analysis (BPA)

Considering that Earth and life evolve together, the present study aims to verify whether the species richness patterns are spatially congruent to biotic history. Niche conservatism was adopted as a background hypothesis to associate species richness with phylogenetic information. A parallel analysis between this procedure and cladistic biogeography was undertaken. Eleven Muscidae genera that were previously systematically reviewed for phylogenetic hypotheses were chosen for the analysis. The genera were split into ‘basal’ and ‘derived’ species, following terminal taxon root distance within each genus. Richness patterns were contrasted for the most basal and most derived 33% of species, and richness maps were constructed at 220 × 220 km grid size. A difference richness map was drawn by derived minus basal values (=derived−basal). For regions with difference values around zero, a component analysis was performed and compared with relationships established by other studies. Derived and basal species richness showed a very concise richness gradient in the Neotropical region and it was compatible with its known biogeographical history. In the Andean region, richness did not show any pattern. The area cladogram grouped Subantarctic subregion in a polytomy and Central Chile as a paraphyletic group. All hypotheses about area relationship were divergent and no vicariant pattern could be recognized in Andean region. In Neotropical region, Muscidae results corroborated a previous component relationship. The hypothesis that Paleogene climatic changes could drive the biotic component’s split was suggested. In the Andean region, recently ice sheet covering events had driven the species to disperse and/or extinct resulted in absence of pattern seen either in richness analysis or in component analysis. It is believed that species richness is linked to biotic history and this fact may be considered when evaluating hypotheses to explain broad-scale richness gradients.

Resumen

Hay una evolucion conjunta entre la Tierra y los organismos que es evidenciada en los patrones de distribucion. El presente articulo tiene como objetivo verificar si la riqueza de especies es espacialmente congruente con la historia biotica. La hipotesis de conservacion de nicho ha sido empleada como un mecanismo de fondo para la asociacion entre la riqueza de especies y la informacion filogenetica. Un analisis paralelo con la biogeografia cladistica fue llevado a cabo. Once generos de Muscidae que habian sido previamente revisados y para los que se disponia de informacion filogenetica fueron elegidos para el analisis. Los generos fueron divididos en especies “basales” y especies “derivadas” de acuerdo con la distancia a la raiz (DR) de los taxones terminales. El 33% de los taxones con los mayores valores de DR fueron considerados como derivados, en tanto el 33% con los menores valores de DR fueron considerados como basales. Las especies fueran sumadas en mapas de riqueza total, basal y derivada de cuadriculas de 220 × 220 km. Un mapa con la diferencia entre derivadas y basales (=derivada−basal) fue confeccionado. Para regiones con valores de diferencia proximos a cero, un analisis de componentes fue empleado y comparado con resultados de estudios previos. Tanto la riqueza basal como la derivada resultaron en patrones concisos en la region Neotropical espacialmente congruentes con la historia del area. En la region Andina, la riqueza de especies no configuro ningun patron. El cladograma de area agrupo la subregion Subantartica en una politomia y Chile Central como un grupo parafiletico. Todas las hipotesis comparadas fueran divergentes y ningun patron vicariante pudo ser detectado. La hipotesis de cambio climatico del Paleogeno puede ser asociada a la separacion de los componentes biogeograficos. En la region Andina, una reciente cobertura de hielo promovio la dispersion o extincion de las poblaciones resultando en la ausencia de patron para la region, detectado tanto en el analisis con riqueza y filogenia como en el analisis de componentes. La riqueza de especies esta vinculada con la historia biotica y este hecho debe ser considerado en la proposicion de hipotesis explicativas para la riqueza de especies en amplia escala.

Spatial congruence between biotic history and species richness of Muscidae (Diptera, Insecta) in the Andean and Neotropical regions

The Anthomyiidae (Insecta, Diptera) include 1,941 species in 53 genera that are found in a wide range of habitats (forests, cities, agricultural fields). Herein, the anthomyiid fauna of the Atlantic Forest of Palmas (south of the state of Paraná) was surveyed using Malaise traps at altitudes higher than 1,000 meters. The collection of these flies was conducted in Palmas Grasslands Wildlife Refuge (PGWR) that is a full protection conservation unit (CU) surrounded by degraded areas and with high levels of endemism. A total of 12 species of anthomyiid flies (42.3% of Brazilian species) and 7 genera (58.3% of Brazilian genera) were identified, including 9 new records to Paraná (Anthomyia plurinervis (Albuquerque, 1958), A. xanthopyga (Albuquerque, 1959), Calythea comis (Stein, 1911), Coenosopsia ferrari Nihei & de Carvalho, 2004, Emmesomyia auricollis (Stein, 1918), E. sobria (Albuquerque & Couri, 1981), Leucophora maculipennis (Albuquerque, 1953), Pegomya bruchi (Shannon & Del Pont, 1926) and P. poeciloptera Malloch, 1921). Also, we examined some specimens deposited in the Department of Zoology, Universidade Federal do Paraná, the Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, and the Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo in order to update species’ distribution, leading to a new record for Rio Grande do Sul (Pegomya poeciloptera Malloch, 1921) and 3 new records for Santa Catarina (Anthomyia pluripunctata (Albuquerque, 1959), Calythea comis (Stein, 1911), Leucophora maculipennis (Albuquerque, 1953)). A key to the local genera and diagnoses of species are provided.

New records of the Brazilian Anthomyiidae (Diptera) and a checklist of species from Palmas Grasslands Wildlife Refuge.

Anthomyiidae is a family of flies distributed worldwide comprising approximately 2,000 species, which, based on molecular analyses, belong to the Muscoidea grade. The phylogenetic data for this fam...

First insights into the evolution of neotropical anthomyiid flies (Diptera: Anthomyiidae)

A new species of Coenosopsia Malloch (Diptera, Muscidae), C. albuquerquei Bortolanza and Carvalho, sp. nov., is described from Telemeco Borba, in the state of Parana, southern Brazil. With this new species included, a cladistic re-analysis of the genus was performed, using the data matrix of Nihei and Carvalho (2004). Results of this analysis suggest a close relationship between C. albuquerquei and C. ferrari. This clade is the sister-group of the other Coenosopsia species: (C. prima (C. brasiliensis, C. peruviana) (C. michelseni (C. floridensis, C. mexicana))). Biogeographically, the vicariant events previously proposed for South America support the evolutionary history of this genus. Additionally, we discuss the possibility that C. michelseni and C. ferrari were not always restricted to the “cerrado” of central Brazil.

A P C Lara

Papers

A new species of Coenosopsia Malloch (Diptera, Anthomyiidae) from southern Brazil and a reappraisal of the cladistic relationships of the genus