Nowaday, zoonoses are an important cause of human parasitic diseases worldwide and a major threat to the socio-economic development, mainly in developing countries. Importantly, zoonotic helminths that affect human eyes (HIE) may cause blindness with severe socio-economic consequences to human communities. These infections include nematodes, cestodes and trematodes, which may be transmitted by vectors (dirofilariasis, onchocerciasis, thelaziasis), food consumption (sparganosis, trichinellosis) and those acquired indirectly from the environment (ascariasis, echinococcosis, fascioliasis). Adult and/or larval stages of HIE may localize into human ocular tissues externally (i.e., lachrymal glands, eyelids, conjunctival sacs) or into the ocular globe (i.e., intravitreous retina, anterior and or posterior chamber) causing symptoms due to the parasitic localization in the eyes or to the immune reaction they elicit in the host. Unfortunately, data on HIE are scant and mostly limited to case reports from different countries. The biology and epidemiology of the most frequently reported HIE are discussed as well as clinical description of the diseases, diagnostic considerations and video clips on their presentation and surgical treatment.

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Zoonotic helminths affecting the human eye

Ocular angiostrongyliasis, diagnosed by identification of Angiostrongylus cantonensis in any part of the eye, is a very rare manifestation We report seven cases of intraocular angiostrongyliasis in Srinagarind Hospital, Khon Kaen University, Thailand From a total of 654 cases of angiostrongyliasis diagnosed between January 1995 and April 2005, 7 cases (11%) with ocular manifestations were found Four men and three women were diagnosed, with a mean age of 321 years (range 21-46 years) All of the patients lived in the northeast of Thailand and acquired the infection by eating raw Pila spp snails, the intermediate host of A cantonensis The incubation period lasted from 2 weeks to 2 months The most common symptom, blurred vision without eosinophilic meningitis, occurred as a presenting symptom in five cases The other two cases presented with eosinophilic meningitis prior to development of poor visual acuity Both cases had papilloedema, neck stiffness and eosinophilia without fever The visual acuity of the patient was mostly lower than 2/60 and, evidently, visual impairment in all patients was caused by retinal pigment epithelial defects All cases had only one immature A cantonensis worm in the eye, with the most common site being the intravitreous area Several treatments, including oral prednisolone, topical prednisolone, argon laser, diode laser, Nd:YAG laser, surgical removal of the parasite and combination therapy, were used There is no evidence that surgical and laser interventions improve the course of the disease, and both have associated risks Visual outcome depends on the initial visual defects

Intraocular angiostrongyliasis: clinical findings, treatments and outcomes

Ocular parasitosis in human is more prevalent in geographical areas where environmental factors and poor sanitary conditions favor the parasitism between man and animals. Lesions in the eye can be due to damage directly caused by the infectious pathogen, indirect pathology caused by toxic products, or the immune response incited by infections or ectopic parasitism. The epidemiology of parasitic ocular diseases reflects the habitat of the causative parasites as well as the habits and health status of the patient. An ocular examination may provide clues to the underlying disease/infection, and an awareness of the possibilities of travel-related pathology may shed light on an ocular presentation. This paper is a comprehensive review of the parasitic diseases of the eye. The majority of the clinically important species of parasites involved in eye infection are reviewed in this paper. Parasites are discussed by the disease or infection they cause.

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Ophthalmic parasitosis: a review article.

Despite the combination of favourable climate for parasites and vectors, and large populations of stray dogs, information concerning the epidemiology, diagnosis and management of canine vector-borne diseases in India is limited. However, with the country's expanding economy and adaptation to western culture, higher expectations and demands are being placed on veterinary surgeons for improved knowledge of diseases and control. This review aims to provide an overview of the current state of knowledge of these diseases in India and identify existing knowledge gaps in the literature which need to be addressed. The available literature on this subject, although limited, suggests that a number of canine vector-borne diseases such as filariasis, babesiosis and ehrlichiosis are endemic throughout India, as diagnosed mostly by morphological methods. Detailed investigations of the epidemiology and zoonotic potential of these pathogens has been neglected. Further study is essential to develop a better understanding of the diversity of canine vector-borne diseases in India, and their significance for veterinary and public health.

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Canine vector-borne diseases in India: A review of the literature and identification of existing knowledge gaps

Inter and intra-specific diversity of parasites that cause lymphatic filariasis.

A species of Brugia, probably B. ceylonensis, was recovered from the conjunctiva of a patient in Sri Lanka for the first time. This infection represents only the second record of Brugia in the human conjunctiva, and is clearly zoonotic, acquired from a dog. Brugia ceylonensis has a distinct head bulb like that of Wuchereria bancrofti and B. malayi. However, the parasite recovered was not W. bancrofti, as specific IFAT and DNA probes gave negative results, and B. malayi is believed to have been eradicated from Sri Lanka several years ago. The presence of a distinct head bulb excludes the possibility that the parasite was B. buckleyi.

Recovery of a species of Brugia, probably B. ceylonensis, from the conjunctiva of a patient in Sri Lanka.

A further case of ocular parastrongyliasis has been seen in a patient from Sri Lanka. As it is a juvenile female worm it could not be identified to the species, but it is probably Parastrongylus (= Angiostrongylus) cantonensis which is the commonly reported species in the country. This is the third authentic case of such an infection in Sri Lanka in recent years.

Third report of ocular parastrongyliasis (angiostrongyliasis) from Sri Lanka.

What is considered to be the first case of human parastrongyliasis (angiostrongyliasis) worldwide is described from a patient in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in 1925. It also predates the description of the parasite in humans by Chen (1935).

A S Dissanaike

Papers

Recovery of a species of Brugia, probably B. ceylonensis, from the conjunctiva of a patient in Sri Lanka.

Third report of ocular parastrongyliasis (angiostrongyliasis) from Sri Lanka.

Ocular parastrongyliasis (=angiostrongyliasis): probable first report of human infection from a patient in Ceylon (Sri Lanka).