Past behavior guides future responses through 2 processes. Well-practiced behaviors in constant contexts recur because the processing that initiates and controls their performance becomes automatic. Frequency of past behavior then reflects habit strength and has a direct effect on future performance. Alternately, when behaviors are not well learned or when they are performed in unstable or difficult contexts, conscious decision making is likely to be necessary to initiate and carry out the behavior. Under these conditions, past behavior (along with attitudes and subjective norms) may contribute to intentions, and behavior is guided by intentions. These relations between past behavior and future behavior are substantiated in a meta-analytic synthesis of prior research on behavior prediction and in a primary research investigation. In everyday explanations of behavior, habits denote one's customary ways of behaving. Claiming that one performed a behavior because of habit provides an understandable explanation for an act that otherwise might seem irrational or even harmful. Habits also are featured in the popular psychology literature in the form of self-help books designed to identify readers' existing habits, evaluate habits' effectiveness in meeting goals, and establish more desirable habits. Habits are not, however, important constructs in most contemporary social psychological models of human behavior. Early in their careers, most psychology graduate students learn that frequency of past behavior, a standard indicator of habit strength (Triandis, 1977, 1980), is the best predictor of

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Habit and intention in everyday life: The multiple processes by which past behavior predicts future behavior.

▪ Abstract Expert and exceptional performance are shown to be mediated by cognitive and perceptual-motor skills and by domain-specific physiological and anatomical adaptations. The highest levels of human performance in different domains can only be attained after around ten years of extended, daily amounts of deliberate practice activities. Laboratory analyses of expert performance in many domains such as chess, medicine, auditing, computer programming, bridge, physics, sports, typing, juggling, dance, and music reveal maximal adaptations of experts to domain-specific constraints. For example, acquired anticipatory skills circumvent general limits on reaction time, and distinctive memory skills allow a domain-specific expansion of working memory capacity to support planning, reasoning, and evaluation. Many of the mechanisms of superior expert performance serve the dual purpose of mediating experts' current performance and of allowing continued improvement of this performance in response to informative fe...

Expert and exceptional performance: evidence of maximal adaptation to task constraints.

The current article reviews the own-race bias (ORB) phenomenon in memory for human faces, the finding that own-race faces are better remembered when compared with memory for faces of another, less familiar race. Data were analyzed from 39 research articles, involving 91 independent samples and nearly 5,000 participants. Measures of hit and false alarm rates, and aggregate measures of discriminatio n accuracy and response criterion were examined, including an analysis of 8 study moderators. Several theoretical relationships were also assessed (i.e., the influence of racial attitudes and interracial contact). Overall, results indicated a "mirror effect" pattern in which own-race faces yielded a higher proportion of hits and a lower proportion of false alarms compared with other-race faces. Consistent with this effect, a significant ORB was also found in aggregate measures of discriminatio n accuracy and response criterion. The influence of perceptual learning and differentiation processes in the ORB are discussed, in addition to the practical implications of this phenomenon. She based her identification on Smith's eyes, which she said were greenish-blue and upon his hands which she said were "light and slender" like the holdup man's. Mrs. McCormick testified that Smith's eyes were "different from most colored people ... bright and piercing." Smith's defense attorneys then attempted to parry the state's first thrust in the trial. Mrs. McCormick was handed a picture of a man she couldn't identify. It was a picture of David Charles, with shorter hair, taken while he was in Vietnam. Assistant defense attorney Kitchen asked Mrs. McCormick if she had ever made the statement that all Black people look alike. "Yes, I made that statement," Mrs. McCormick said, "and they do to a certain extent, but there's a difference here" (Lickson, 1974, p. 66). In 1971, five Black men, who became known as the "Quincy Five," were wrongfully indicted for the murder of Khomas Revels during a robbery in Tallahassee, Florida. Although no forensic evidence obtained from the crime scene was ever linked to the men, five White eyewitnesses positively identified them as among the perpetrators. In each of three trials the state argued, "What better evidence can there be than, 'I saw him,' from unprejudiced witnesses? This has been used since time immemorial. This is proof beyond a reasonable doubt. Five eyewitnesses!" (Lickson, 1974, p. 87). Despite the lack of physical evidence against these men, two of the defendants, Dave Roby Keaton and Johnny Frederick, were found guilty on the basis of eyewitness testimony and coerced confessions obtained by investigators . During the third trial involving David

http://majorsmatter.net/race/Readings/Meissner%202001.pdf

Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review

Experiments 1-2 examined generic knowledge and episodic memories of putting in novice and expert golfers. Impoverished episodic recollection of specific putts among experts indicated that skilled putting is encoded in a procedural form that supports performance without the need for step-by-step attentional control. According to explicit monitoring theories of choking, such proceduralization makes putting vulnerable to decrements under pressure. Experiments 3-4 examined choking and the ability of training conditions to ameliorate it in putting and a nonproceduralized alphabet arithmetic skill analogous to mental arithmetic. Choking occurred in putting but not alphabet arithmetic. In putting, choking was unchanged by dual-task training but eliminated by self-consciousness training. These findings support explicit monitoring theories of choking and the popular but infrequently tested belief that attending to proceduralized skills hurts performance.

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On the fragility of skilled performance: what governs choking under pressure?

Although DeLone, McLean, and others insist that system usage is a key variable in information systems research, the system usage construct has received little theoretical scrutiny, boasts no widely accepted definition, and has been operationalized by a diverse set of unsystematized measures. In this article, we present a systematic approach for reconceptualizing the system usage construct in particular nomological contexts. Comprising two stages, definition and selection, the approach enables researchers to develop clear and valid measures of system usage for a given theoretical and substantive context. The definition stage requires that researchers define system usage and explicate its underlying assumptions. In the selection stage, we suggest that system usage be conceptualized in terms of its structure and function. The structure of system usage is tripartite, comprising a user, system, and task, and researchers need to justify which elements of usage are most relevant for their study. In terms of function, researchers should choose measures for each element (i.e., user, system, and/or task) that tie closely to the other constructs in the researcher's nomological network.

To provide evidence of the viability of the approach, we undertook an empirical investigation of the relationship between system usage and short-run task performance in cognitively engaging tasks. The results support the benefits of the approach and show how an inappropriate choice of usage measures can lead researchers to draw opposite conclusions in an empirical study. Together, the approach and the results of the empirical investigation suggest new directions for research into the nature of system usage, its antecedents, and its consequences.

https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/suppl/10.1287/isre.1060.0096/suppl_file/isre.1060.0096-sm-supplements.pdf

Reconceptualizing System Usage: An Approach and Empirical Test

Foundations of Skill Research Perceptual Skill Response-Selection Skill Motor Skill Performance of Multiple Tasks Learning through Experiences Problem Solving Skill The Development of Expertise Training Individual Differences Situational Influences on Skilled Performance Modeling the Characteristics of Skill

Skill acquisition and human performance

The influence of extended practice on stimulus-response (S-R) compatibility effects was investigated. Three experiments, each extending over a period of 8 sessions, were conducted. The nature and degree of compatibility was manipulated across experiments. In all experiments, a persistent effect of S-R compatibility on reaction times was observed. Thus, the lower bound for reaction times appears to be less for compatible assignments than for incompatible assignments. This persistence of S-R compatibility indicates that the initial codings used to perform a novel task continue to exert an influence on later performance. Language: en

Persistence of stimulus-response compatibility effects with extended practice.

Activation of response codes by relevant and irrelevant stimulus information

A two-choice reaction task was used to evaluate changes in stimulus-response translation with practice. In Experiment 1, four groups of Ss practiced with either a direct or indirect mapping of left-right stimuli to left-right responses and either a crossed or uncrossed hand placement and transferred to one of the four Mapping x Placement conditions. Stimulus-response location and response location-effector relations affected performance initially and after practice. In Experiments 2 and 3, Ss switched every 42 trials between conditions for which only the stimulus location-effector (Experiment 2) or stimulus-response location relation (Experiment 3) remained constant. Switching produced interference in Experiment 2 but not in Experiment 3, corroborating the influence of the stimulus-response location relation on performance. Mediation based on spatial codes continues to be a factor in the performance of practiced Ss.

Addie Dutta

Papers

Skill acquisition and human performance

Persistence of stimulus-response compatibility effects with extended practice.

Activation of response codes by relevant and irrelevant stimulus information

Do the same stimulus-response relations influence choice reactions initially and after practice?

Spatial and temporal uncertainty in long-term memory