抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Rapid growth in nanotechnology is increasing the likelihood of engineered nanomaterials coming into contact with humans and the environment. Nanoparticles interacting with proteins, membranes, cells, DNA and organelles establish a series of nanoparticle/biological interfaces that depend on colloidal forces as well as dynamic biophysicochemical interactions. These interactions lead to the formation of protein coronas, particle wrapping, intracellular uptake and biocatalytic processes that could have biocompatible or bioadverse outcomes. For their part, the biomolecules may induce phase transformations, free energy releases, restructuring and dissolution at the nanomaterial surface. Probing these various interfaces allows the development of predictive relationships between structure and activity that are determined by nanomaterial properties such as size, shape, surface chemistry, roughness and surface coatings. This knowledge is important from the perspective of safe use of nanomaterials.

Understanding biophysicochemical interactions at the nano–bio interface

1. Introduction 20642. Synthesis of Magnetic Nanoparticles 20662.1. Classical Synthesis by Coprecipitation 20662.2. Reactions in Constrained Environments 20682.3. Hydrothermal and High-TemperatureReactions20692.4. Sol-Gel Reactions 20702.5. Polyol Methods 20712.6. Flow Injection Syntheses 20712.7. Electrochemical Methods 20712.8. Aerosol/Vapor Methods 20712.9. Sonolysis 20723. Stabilization of Magnetic Particles 20723.1. Monomeric Stabilizers 20723.1.1. Carboxylates 20733.1.2. Phosphates 20733.2. Inorganic Materials 20733.2.1. Silica 20733.2.2. Gold 20743.3. Polymer Stabilizers 20743.3.1. Dextran 20743.3.2. Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) 20753.3.3. Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) 20753.3.4. Alginate 20753.3.5. Chitosan 20753.3.6. Other Polymers 20753.4. Other Strategies for Stabilization 20764. Methods of Vectorization of the Particles 20765. Structural and Physicochemical Characterization 20785.1. Size, Polydispersity, Shape, and SurfaceCharacterization20795.2. Structure of Ferro- or FerrimagneticNanoparticles20805.2.1. Ferro- and Ferrimagnetic Nanoparticles 20805.3. Use of Nanoparticles as Contrast Agents forMRI20825.3.1. High Anisotropy Model 20845.3.2. Small Crystal and Low Anisotropy EnergyLimit20855.3.3. Practical Interests of Magnetic NuclearRelaxation for the Characterization ofSuperparamagnetic Colloid20855.3.4. Relaxation of Agglomerated Systems 20856. Applications 20866.1. MRI: Cellular Labeling, Molecular Imaging(Inﬂammation, Apoptose, etc.)20866.2.

Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Stabilization, Vectorization, Physicochemical Characterizations, and Biological Applications

Nanocrystals (NCs) discussed in this Review are tiny crystals of metals, semiconductors, and magnetic material consisting of hundreds to a few thousand atoms each. Their size ranges from 2-3 to about 20 nm. What is special about this size regime that placed NCs among the hottest research topics of the last decades? The quantum mechanical coupling * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: dvtalapin@uchicago.edu. † The University of Chicago. ‡ Argonne National Lab. Chem. Rev. 2010, 110, 389–458 389

/pdf/prospects-of-colloidal-nanocrystals-for-electronic-and-3dxpyhl3r7.pdf

Prospects of Colloidal Nanocrystals for Electronic and Optoelectronic Applications

In the domain of health, one important challenge is the efficient delivery of drugs in the body using non-toxic nanocarriers. Most of the existing carrier materials show poor drug loading (usually less than 5 wt% of the transported drug versus the carrier material) and/or rapid release of the proportion of the drug that is simply adsorbed (or anchored) at the external surface of the nanocarrier. In this context, porous hybrid solids, with the ability to tune their structures and porosities for better drug interactions and high loadings, are well suited to serve as nanocarriers for delivery and imaging applications. Here we show that specific non-toxic porous iron(III)-based metal-organic frameworks with engineered cores and surfaces, as well as imaging properties, function as superior nanocarriers for efficient controlled delivery of challenging antitumoural and retroviral drugs (that is, busulfan, azidothymidine triphosphate, doxorubicin or cidofovir) against cancer and AIDS. In addition to their high loadings, they also potentially associate therapeutics and diagnostics, thus opening the way for theranostics, or personalized patient treatments.

Porous metal–organic-framework nanoscale carriers as a potential platform for drug delivery and imaging

Evaluating and understanding the performances of magnetic colloids as contrast agents for MRI requires a theory describing their magnetic interactions with water protons. The field dependence of the proton longitudinal relaxation rate (nuclear magnetic relaxation dispersion profiles) in aqueous colloidal suspensions of superparamagnetic particles is based on the so-called Curie relaxation, which essentially accounts for the high field part of the NMRD profiles (B0>0.02 T). The low-field part of the NMRD profiles can only be explained by the crystal’s internal anisotropy energy, a concept which clarifies the important difference between superpara- and paramagnetic compounds: the anisotropy energy modifies both the electronic precession frequencies and the thermodynamic probability of occupation of the crystal magnetic states. Our theory clearly explains why a low-field dispersion exists for suspensions of small size crystals, and why it does not for large crystals’ suspensions. This important effect is due...

Theory of proton relaxation induced by superparamagnetic particles

Nanometric crystals of maghemite are known to exhibit superparamagnetism. Because of the significance of their magnetic moment, maghemite nanoparticles are exceptional contrast agents and are used for magnetic resonance imaging (of the liver, spleen, lymph nodes), for magnetic resonance angiography and for molecular and cellular imaging. The relaxivity of these agents depends on their size, saturation magnetization and magnetic field and also on their degree of clustering. There are different types of maghemite particles whose relaxation characteristics are suited to a specific MRI application. The relaxation induced by maghemite particles is caused by the diffusion of water protons in the inhomogeneous field surrounding the particles. This is well described by a theoretical model that takes magnetite crystal anisotropy and Neel relaxation into account. Another type of superparamagnetic compound is ferritin, the iron-storing protein: it contains a superparamagnetic ferrihydrite core. Even if the resulting magnetic moment of ferritin is far smaller than for magnetite nanoparticles, its massive presence in different organs darkens T2-weighted MR images, allowing the noninvasive estimation of iron content, thanks to MRI. The relaxation induced by ferritin in aqueous solutions has been demonstrated to be caused by the exchange of protons between bulk water protons and the surface of the ferrihydrite crystal. However, in vivo, the relaxation properties of ferritin are still unexplained, probably because of protein clustering. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Magnetic resonance relaxation properties of superparamagnetic particles

http://magneticliquid.narod.ru/autority/385.pdf

Superparamagnetic colloid suspensions: Water magnetic relaxation and clustering

Computer simulations and experimental approach have been used to characterize the properties of particulate MRI contrast agents with special attention paid to the influence of particle size. Up to approximately 50 nm, an increase of the particle diameter leads to a strong enhancement of the transverse magnetization decay rate. For larger grains or aggregates, the decay rate measured without spin-echo formation reaches a plateau. When observed through a spin-echo sequence, the transverse magnetization decay rate becomes slower on increasing the particle size or on shortening the echo time. For these large particles, multiexponential decay rates are observed. Definition and measurement of relaxivity in such systems is discussed. © 1991 Academic Press, Inc.

Alain Roch

Papers

Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Stabilization, Vectorization, Physicochemical Characterizations, and Biological Applications

Theory of proton relaxation induced by superparamagnetic particles

Magnetic resonance relaxation properties of superparamagnetic particles

Superparamagnetic colloid suspensions: Water magnetic relaxation and clustering

Transverse relaxivity of particulate MRI contrast media: from theories to experiments.