What are interactive multimodal learning environments and how should they be designed to promote students’ learning? In this paper, we offer a cognitive–affective theory of learning with media from which instructional design principles are derived. Then, we review a set of experimental studies in which we found empirical support for five design principles: guided activity, reflection, feedback, control, and pretraining. Finally, we offer directions for future instructional technology research.

Interactive Multimodal Learning Environments Special Issue on Interactive Learning Environments: Contemporary Issues and Trends

Cognitive load is a theoretical notion with an increasingly central role in the educational research literature. The basic idea of cognitive load theory is that cognitive capacity in working memory is limited, so that if a learning task requires too much capacity, learning will be hampered. The recommended remedy is to design instructional systems that optimize the use of working memory capacity and avoid cognitive overload. Cognitive load theory has advanced educational research considerably and has been used to explain a large set of experimental findings. This article sets out to explore the open questions and the boundaries of cognitive load theory by identifying a number of problematic conceptual, methodological and application-related issues. It concludes by presenting a research agenda for future studies of cognitive load.

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Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought

How can video clips embedded in multimedia presentations be used to improve learning in college courses? To answer this question, a review of the theoretical and research evidence on videos and the brain is presented first. That is followed by a description of the theory of multimedia learning as it relates to videos and a review of studies using videos over the past four decades in college courses. The results of these studies and the verbal and visual components of a video potentially provide a best fit to the characteristics of this Net Generation of students and a valid approach to tap their multiple intelligences and learning styles. Concrete guidelines are given for using available video technology in the classroom, selecting appropriate video clips for any class, and applying those clips as a systematic teaching tool. The use of clips can also attain 20 specific learning outcomes. Toward that end, 12 generic techniques with examples to integrate video clips into teaching across the college curriculum are described.

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Multimedia Teaching with Video Clips: TV, Movies, YouTube, and mtvU in the College Classroom

Although many studies have investigated the effects of digital game-based learning (DGBL) on learning and motivation, its benefits have never been systematically demonstrated. In our first experiment, we sought to identify the conditions under which DGBL is most effective, by analyzing the effects of two different types of instructions (learning instruction vs. entertainment instruction). Results showed that the learning instruction elicited deeper learning than the entertainment one, without impacting negatively on motivation. In our second experiment, we showed that if learners are given regular feedback about their performance, the entertainment instruction results in deep learning. These two experiments demonstrate that a serious game environment can promote learning and motivation, providing it includes features that prompt learners to actively process the educational content. We examined the effects of two types of instructions on digital game-based learning.Experiment 1 showed that learning is deeper with a learning instruction.Experiment 2 showed that an entertainment instruction with feedback is beneficial.These results are discussed in terms of motivation and learning processes.

Digital game-based learning: Impact of instructions and feedback on motivation and learning effectiveness

Van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2008). Instructional efficiency: Revisiting the
original construct in educational research. Educational Psychologist, 43, 16-26.

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Instructional Efficiency: Revisiting the Original Construct in Educational Research.

The cognitive load and learning effects of dual-code and interactivity—two multimedia methods intended to promote meaningful learning—were examined. In Experiment 1, college students learned about the causal chain of events leading to the process of lightning formation with a set of words and corresponding pictures (Group WP), pictures (Group P), or words (Group W). Some students were presented with the organized causal chain of events to study, whereas others were given a self-organization task. Consistent with a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, Condition WP was the highest in instructional efficiency for retention and transfer. However, contrary to our predictions, having students organize the multimedia materials was detrimental to transfer. Two follow-up experiments tested the hypotheses that the negative effects of interactivity were due to students' lack of time control (Experiment 2) and the form of feedback (Experiment 3). The findings showed that interactivity was effective when students were asked to evaluate their answers before receiving corrective feedback from the system.

http://www.anitacrawley.net/Resources/Articles/Moreno%20Cognitive%20Load%20and%20Learning%20Effects%20of.pdf

Cognitive Load and Learning Effects of Having Students Organize Pictures and Words in Multimedia Environments: The Role of Student Interactivity and Feedback

Students learned teaching principles either with or without (control group) the presentation of a classroom exemplar in video or text format. Across 2 experiments, the video group produced higher transfer scores and affective ratings than the other groups. Four weeks later, the video group recalled more information about the exemplar than the text group, but no treatment effects were found on transfer. Qualitative analyses (Experiment 2) showed that the video group produced a significantly larger number of modeled behaviors in the transfer test than the text (immediate) and control (immediate and delayed) groups. Results encourage using classroom video exemplars to promote students' affect and retention, but suggest that additional pedagogies are needed to promote longer term transfer of theory into practice.

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Immediate and Delayed Effects of Using a Classroom Case Exemplar in Teacher Education: The Role of Presentation Format

Metacognitive monitoring processes have been shown to be critical determinants of human learning. Metacognitive monitoring consist of various knowledge estimates that enable learners to engage in self-regulatory processes important for both the acquisition of knowledge and the monitoring of one’s knowledge when engaged in assessment. This study investigated the reliability and the predictive validity of one measure of metacognitive monitoring, absolute accuracy . Absolute accuracy pertains to how accurately students judge their knowledge relative to their actual performance on a test. Students show poor absolute accuracy if they judge their knowledge as correct when in fact it is in error, or if they judge their knowledge in error when in fact it is correct. Contrary to previous studies, this study revealed that absolute accuracy indices may be reliably measured in an authentic setting. The study also showed that absolute accuracy was significantly correlated with concurrent test performance.

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Student Metacognitive Monitoring: Predicting Test Achievement from Judgment Accuracy

Impact of Math Snacks Games on Students’ Conceptual Understanding

This study investigated how a goal intervention influences the learning effects gained from feedback when acquiring concepts and rules pertaining to the topic of descriptive statistics. Three feedback conditions; knowledge of correct response feedback (KCRF), principle-based feedback (PBF), and no-feedback (NF), were crossed with two goal conditions; goal and no goal, to form six experimental conditions. Learning was measured by comparing correct answer performance, among the experimental conditions, on the second and third administration of a 24-item multiple-choice test. The four groups who received feedback (KCRF and PBF) performed significantly better on tests two and three than those who had not received feedback. However, group performance on tests two and three did not differ between the PBF and KCRF conditions. More importantly, although the goal intervention had little influence for the KCRF and NF conditions, those participants who were given PBF performed significantly better on test three when given a goal intervention than when not given a goal intervention.

Alfred Valdez

Papers

Cognitive Load and Learning Effects of Having Students Organize Pictures and Words in Multimedia Environments: The Role of Student Interactivity and Feedback

Immediate and Delayed Effects of Using a Classroom Case Exemplar in Teacher Education: The Role of Presentation Format

Student Metacognitive Monitoring: Predicting Test Achievement from Judgment Accuracy

Impact of Math Snacks Games on Students’ Conceptual Understanding

Computer-Based Feedback and Goal Intervention: Learning Effects