A growing interest in sourcing local food prod ucts is reflected in two recent best-selling books (Kingsolver, Hopp, and Kingsolver 2007; Pollan 2008) that make the case for "going local." Darby et al. (2008) recently found that consumers prefer locally grown over U.S. grown, even when freshness is held constant, and are willing to pay almost double for a product from a closer location. A sur vey by the Hartman Group (2008) found that many consumers define local in terms of dis tance from their home; one-half said that local meant "made or produced within 100 miles," while one-third of consumers (37%) under stood local to mean "made or produced in my state." Farmers markets could be considered the historical flagship of local food systems, and their numbers in the United States have grown significantly over the last decade, a 150% in crease from 1994 through 2006 (AMS 2007). Total nationwide sales for the 2005 season were estimated at $1 billion, reflecting 13% sales growth since 2000 (USDA 2006). Re search on farmers markets is not new; an in ventory of farmers market research (Brown 2002) mentions studies as far back as the 1940s. Brown's literature review, however, ends with research in 2000. Since that time the number of farmers markets has increased by 53% (AMS 2007), and research on farmers markets has also grown. Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) is a marketing strategy where consumers buy "shares" in the farm before planting begins and receive a portion of whatever is available each week of the growing season. These shares gen erally cost several hundred dollars and provide enough fresh produce for a family; some shares include other products, such as eggs, honey, flowers, and/or meat. First introduced into the United States in 1985 and estimated at only 50 farms in 1990, CSA farms now number over 1,900 (LocalHarvest 2008). Research on CSA has also increased, although much is descrip tive research or case studies of a small number of farms (AFSIC 2008). This review of litera ture focuses on research that examines the im pacts that CSA and farmers markets have on farmers, consumers, and communities, follow ing up on Brown's (2002) findings by reviewing research conducted on farmers markets since 2000.

The Impacts of Local Markets: A Review of Research on Farmers Markets and Community Supported Agriculture (CSA)

This study uses nationally representative data on the marketing of local foods to assess the relative scale of local food marketing channels. This research documents that sales through intermediated marketing channels, such as farmers’ sales to local grocers and restaurants, account for a large portion of all local food sales. Small and medium-sized farms dominate local foods sales marketed exclusively through direct-to-consumer channels (foods sold at roadside stands or farmers’ markets, for example) while large farms dominate local food sales marketed exclusively through intermediated channels. Farmers marketing food locally are most prominent in the Northeast and the West Coast regions and areas close to densely populated urban markets. Climate and topography favoring the production of fruits and vegetables, proximity to and neighboring farm participation in farmers’ markets, and good transportation and information access are found to be associated with higher levels of direct-to-consumer sales.

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Direct and Intermediated Marketing of Local Foods in the United States

Perhaps the greatest evidence of momentum in the local food movement is the recognition of “Locavores” as the 2007 word of the year by the New Oxford American Dictionary. Defined as “a local resident who tries to eat only food grown or produced within a 100-mile radius,” the term identifies the growing ranks of environmentally and edibility-conscious consumers who deliberately seek out locally produced food and beverages. Moreover, the market has witnessed considerable growth in the numbers of farmers using direct marketing strategies, a doubling of U.S. farmers’ markets over the past decade, and strong growth in Community Supported Agriculture organizations (CSAs), in which shareholders directly pay farmers for a proportion of output (USDA Ag Census 2002; USDA AMS 2008; Lass et al. 2003). Furthermore, national media outlets, including Time, have dubbed “Local the New Organic” (Cloud 2007). However, despite the apparent growth in demand for local foods, there has been a paucity of research results regarding the motivation of consumers to seek out and pay a premium for local produce offerings, the role of direct markets in consumer shopping choices, and buying profiles of consumers who frequent direct channels (Brown 2002; Zepeda and Li 2006). In this article, we summarize much of the authors’ research on preferences of direct consumers of fresh produce in the context of a theoretical model regarding product and source choice. A particular focus is how local source and product attribution may connect with perceived private and public good dimensions

Going Local: Exploring Consumer Behavior and Motivations for Direct Food Purchases

Unpacking the terms of engagement with local food at the Farmers’ Market: Insights from Ontario

Determining consumers' preferences and willingness to pay (WTP) for organically grown and locally grown fresh produce is very important for stakeholders because it helps them figure out what type of fresh produce to grow and sell, what to emphasize in marketing efforts, and what are reasonable prices to charge. However, the literature that studies and compares consumers' preference and WTP for both organically and locally grown fresh produce is sparse. The objective of this study was to investigate consumers' WTP for organically grown and locally grown fresh produce and the marketing segmentation of these two types of produce. We combined a hypothetical experiment and nonhypothetical choice mechanism to investigate consum- ers' WTP for the attributes organic, local, and organic plus local for fresh produce. We found that when real products were used in the hypothetical experiment, the hypothetical bias (the difference between what people say they will pay and what they would actually pay) was not high. We found that consumers' WTP for the organic attribute was about the same as their WTP for the local attribute. Consumers' sociodemographics affected their choice between organically grown and locally grown produce. Furthermore, we found that consumers patronized different retail venues to purchase fresh produce with different attributes. The findings of the research have great importance for fresh produce stakeholders to make correct production and marketing decisions; the findings also contribute to experimental method choice in consumers' WTP research.

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Organic or Local? Investigating Consumer Preference for Fresh Produce Using a Choice Experiment with Real Economic Incentives

The number of retail farmers' markets in the USA increased dramatically in the twentieth century, with a burst of growth experienced after the passage of Public Law 94-463 (PL 94-463), the Farmer-to-Consumer Direct Marketing Act of 1976. This article inventories the literature since the Second World War on retail farmers' markets and direct marketing in North America. The inventory includes some lesser known studies from 1970 to 1985. The reports are grouped into four categories by topical area: consumers and vendors, economic impact, social impact and farmers' markets as research sites. Overall, the literature on farmers' markets is found to be scant, leaving ample room for new and exciting explorations of this venerable institution.

Farmers' market research 1940–2000: An inventory and review

This study tested whether overweight/obese children's attendance in a community-based physical activity (PA) program was associated with changes in cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and adiposity and whether in-program activity levels influenced those associations. Program sessions (offered twice/week, 2 hours/session, over 9 months) included structured exercise/sports. At baseline and follow-up, CRF was measured as Progressive Aerobic Cardiorespiratory Endurance Run (PACER) laps, height/weight were measured, and body mass index (BMI) was calculated. Attendance was recorded as sessions attended. Children wore pedometers in 10 representative sessions; in-program activity was calculated as mean steps/minute across sessions. Linear mixed models tested associations between attendance and changes in PACER score and BMI and the influence of in-program activity on those associations. A total of 101 participants (56% male, 93% Hispanic) completed baseline and one or two follow-up fitness/adiposity measurements. Attendance was associated with PACER change (β = .093, p = .01) but not BMI change (β = .00026, p = .97). There were significant interactions between attendance and in-program activity: Attendance more favorably affected PACER (p < .0001) and BMI (p = .03) as in-program activity levels increased. Attending community-based PA programs may improve CRF among overweight/obese children, particularly when participants are highly active during program time. Community practitioners should not only enroll overweight/obese children in PA programs but also promote adequate attendance/in-program activity levels.

Allison A. Brown

Papers

Farmers' market research 1940–2000: An inventory and review

Impact of a Community-Based Physical Activity Program on Fitness and Adiposity Among Overweight and Obese Children