Definition: To what extent does the study allow us to draw conclusions about a causal effect between two or more constructs? Issues: Selection, maturation, history, mortality, testing, regression towrd the mean, selection by maturation, treatment by mortality, treatment by testing, measured treatment variables Increase: Eliminate the threats, above all do experimental manipulations, random assignment, and counterbalancing.

Reliability and validity

In his Preface the author' says that he started out to review all the more important theories upon the topics ordinarily discussed under human motivation but soon found himself more and more limited to the presentation of his own point of view. This very well characterizes the book. It is a very personal product. It is an outline with some defense of the author's own thinking about instincts and appetites and sentiments and how they function in human behavior. And as the author draws so heavily upon James and McDougall, especially the latter, the book may well be looked upon as a sort of sequel to their efforts. There is a thought-provoking distinction presented between instinct and appetite. An instinct is said to be aroused always by something in the external situation; and, correspondingly, an appetite is said to be aroused by sensations from within the body itself. This places, of course, a heavy emphasis upon the cognitive factor in all instinctive behaviors; and the author prefers to use the cognitive factor, especially the knowledge of that end-experience which will satisfy, as a means of differentiating one instinct from another. In this there is a recognized difference from McDougall who placed more emphasis for differentiation upon the emotional accompaniment. The list of instincts arrived at by this procedure is much like that of McDougall, although the author is forced by his criteria to present the possibility of food-seeking and sex and sleep operating both in the manner of an appetite and also as an instinct. The Shand-McDougall concept of sentiment is taken over and used in the explanation of moral motivation. There is the development within each personality of a sentiment for some moral principle. But this sentiment is not a very powerful motivating factor. It is reinforced by social pressures and by religion, which is treated as an effort of finite man to live in harmony with the infinite reality. Those whose psychological thinking is largely in terms of McDougall will doubtless find this volume a very satisfying expansion; but those who are at all inclined to support their psychological thinking by reference to experimental studies will not be so well pleased. The James-Lange theory, for example, is discussed without mention of the many experimental studies which it has provoked. Theoretical sources appear in general to be preferred to experimental investigations.

Human MotivationThe Mind in Action: A Study of Motives and Values. A. Campbell Garnett

Using a teaching model framework, we systematically review empirical evidence on the impact of entrepreneurship education (EE) in higher education on a range of learning outcomes, analysing 159 published articles from 2004-2016. The teaching model framework allows us for the first time to start rigorously examining relationships between pedagogical methods and specific outcomes. Re-confirming past reviews and meta-analyses, we find that EE impact research still predominantly focuses on short-term and subjective outcome measures and tends to severely under-describe the actual pedagogies being tested. Moreover, we use our review to provide an up-to-date and empirically rooted call for less obvious, yet greatly promising, new or underemphasised directions for future research on the impact of university-based entrepreneurship education. This includes, for example, the use of novel impact indicators related to emotion and mindset, focus on the impact indicators related to the intention-to-behaviour transition, and explore the reasons for some of the contradictory findings in impact studies including person-, context- and pedagogical model-specific moderators.

The impact of entrepreneurship education in higher education: A systematic review and research agenda

The literature of small business and entrepreneurship is explored. It is established that, although there is an overlap between entrepreneurial firms and small business firms, they are different entities. Using the 1934 work of Schumpeter and recognizing the additions to the field of current writers, a conceptual framework is established for the differentiation of entrepreneurs from small business owners. Keywords: entrepreneurial, Small business

Differentiating Entrepreneurs from Small Business Owners: A Conceptualization

Examines the motivation for achievement as a psychological factor that shapes economic development. Refuting arguments based on race, climate, or population growth, the book instead argues for cultural customs and motivations - especially the motivation for achievement - as the major catalysts of economic growth. Considering the Protestant Reformation, the rise of capitalism, parents' influences on sons, and folklore and children's stories as shaping cultural motivations for achievement, the book hypothesizes that a high level of achievement motivation precedes economic growth. This is supported through qualitative analysis of the achievement motive, as well as of other psychological factors - including entrepreneurial behavior and characteristics, and available sources of achievement in past and present highly achieving societies. It is the achievement motive - and not merely the profit motive or the desire for material gain - that has advanced societies economically. Consequently, individuals are not merely products of their environment, as many social scientists have asserted, but also creators of the environment, as they manipulate it in various ways in the search for achievement. Finally, a plan is hypothesized to accelerate economic growth in developing countries, by encouraging and supplementing their achievement motives through mobilizing the greater achievement resources of developed countries. The conclusion is not just that motivations shape economic progress, but that current influences on future people's motivations and values will determine economic growth in the long run. Thus, it is most beneficial for a society to concentrate its resources on creating an environment conducive to entrepreneurship and a strong ideological base for achievement. (CJC)

The Achieving Society

A social enterprise besides mobilizing resources and generating employment responds to social problems usually ignored by institutions. We study key factors that may influence social enterprise cre...

Cognitive Determinants of Social Entrepreneurship: Variations According to the Degree of Economic Development

Purpose – The objective of this paper is to provide a global perspective of the operational risk (OR) management framework from an internal audit viewpoint.Design/methodology/approach – This paper describes the new role of the internal audit function in reviewing the OR framework.Findings – An efficient OR management framework will improve and reinforce the internal controls of the organization. Internal audit should be alert to the whole process of implementation of the systems for managing OR in entities.Originality/value – This area has not been analyzed in depth to date. The paper provides a summary guide to audit of OR management frameworks in financial institutions.

Internal audit function role in operational risk management

This work develops a systematic literature review on the B Corp movement. Fifty articles were identified in the Web of Science and Scopus databases until 2020. Results show that it is an incipient field with great potential. There are two topics repeatedly addressed in the analyzed publications: the motivations of companies to be certified, and the economic and social effects that occur after certification. Sustainability is currently the reference journal in the field, since it has published a total of five articles. Finally, several lines of future work are proposed, such as the contribution of B Corp companies to the SDGs; the development of case studies on the certification process itself; and the development of methods for measuring social impact.

https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/5/2508/pdf

The B Corp Movement: A Systematic Literature Review

Purpose Based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the purpose of this paper is to analyse the influence of the advantages and disadvantages of entrepreneurship surrounding the entrepreneurial intention on a university context. Design/methodology/approach To test the hypothesis it is used a quantitative research. With a structural equations approach, it is explored the psychological mechanisms that could affect to the entrepreneurial intentions of university students. Findings The results obtained show that the advantages related to entrepreneurship, in particular personal rewards, influence positively on the entrepreneurial attitude. However, the disadvantages, in particular economic aspects, have a negative effect. Additionally, the authors test that the gender and the academic training have a moderate effect on the variables which influence on the entrepreneurial intention. Originality/value This paper contributes to the literature on entrepreneurship in two important aspects. First, it goes into detail...

/pdf/entrepreneurial-intention-perceived-advantages-and-2u7caqszn2.pdf

Ana Fernández-Laviada

Papers

Cognitive Determinants of Social Entrepreneurship: Variations According to the Degree of Economic Development

Internal audit function role in operational risk management

The B Corp Movement: A Systematic Literature Review

Entrepreneurial intention: perceived advantages and disadvantages

The teacher of entrepreneurship as a role model: Students' and teachers’ perceptions