State-of-the-art metal 3D printers promise to revolutionize manufacturing, yet they have not reached optimal operational reliability. The challenge is to control complex laser-powder-melt pool interdependency (dependent upon each other) dynamics. We used high-fidelity simulations, coupled with synchrotron experiments, to capture fast multitransient dynamics at the meso-nanosecond scale and discovered new spatter-induced defect formation mechanisms that depend on the scan strategy and a competition between laser shadowing and expulsion. We derived criteria to stabilize the melt pool dynamics and minimize defects. This will help improve build reliability.

Controlling interdependent meso-nanosecond dynamics and defect generation in metal 3D printing

Mechanical response of a triply periodic minimal surface cellular structures manufactured by selective laser melting

The turbine blade test parts were manufactured by the selective laser melting (SLM) process using a nickel-based pre-alloyed Inconel (IN) 718 powder. Various mechanical post-processing techniques, such as barrel finishing (BF), shot peening (SP), ultrasonic shot peening (USP), and ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT), were applied to improve the surface layer properties of the SLM-built specimens. Effects of mechanical surface treatments on surface topography, porosity, hardness, and residual stress were studied. In comparison with the SLM-built state the surface roughness (Sa = 5.27 μm) of the post-processed specimens were respectively decreased by 20.6%, 26.2%, and 57.4% after the BF, USP, and UIT processes except for the SP-treated ones. The Sz parameter was reduced in all treated SLM-built specimens except for the SP-treated ones. The surface microhardness of the SLM-built specimen (~390 HV0.025) was increased after the BF (by 14.2%), USP (by 23.8%), UIT (by 50%), and SP (by 66.5%) processes. The deepest hardened layers were formed after the UIT and SP processes. Residual porosity of the SLM-built specimen was decreased by 23.1%, 40.6%, 55%, and 84% after the BF, SP, USP and UIT processes, respectively. The UIT process formed a densified subsurface layer of significantly reduced porosity (0.118%). All mechanical surface treatments successfully transformed the tensile residual stresses generated in SLM-built specimen into the compressive residual stresses (−201.4...510.7 MPa). The thickness of hardened, densified and compressed near-surface layers ranges from ~80 μm after BF to ~140 μm after USP, and ~180 μm after SP and UIT processes, which correlates to the accumulated energy and deformation extent of the treated surface. The effect of the accumulated energy on the outcomes of the applied surface treatments is also addressed.

Post-processing of the Inconel 718 alloy parts fabricated by selective laser melting: Effects of mechanical surface treatments on surface topography, porosity, hardness and residual stress

This article overviews the scientific results of the microstructural features observed in 316 L stainless steel manufactured by the laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) method obtained by the authors, and discusses the results with respect to the recently published literature. Microscopic features of the LPBF microstructure, i.e., epitaxial nucleation, cellular structure, microsegregation, porosity, competitive colony growth, and solidification texture, were experimentally studied by scanning and transmission electron microscopy, diffraction methods, and atom probe tomography. The influence of laser power and laser scanning speed on the microstructure was discussed in the perspective of governing the microstructure by controlling the process parameters. It was shown that the three-dimensional (3D) zig-zag solidification texture observed in the LPBF 316 L was related to the laser scanning strategy. The thermal stability of the microstructure was investigated under isothermal annealing conditions. It was shown that the cells formed at solidification started to disappear at about 800 °C, and that this process leads to a substantial decrease in hardness. Colony boundaries, nevertheless, were quite stable, and no significant grain growth was observed after heat treatment at 1050 °C. The observed experimental results are discussed with respect to the fundamental knowledge of the solidification processes, and compared with the existing literature data.

Microstructure, solidification texture, and thermal stability of 316 L stainless steel manufactured by laser powder bed fusion

Mechanical properties (tensile strength and creep) of AlSi10Mg specimens fabricated by selective laser melting (SLM) in the Z-direction were investigated in the 25–400 °C temperature range. Specimens were tested after stress relief treatment. The results revealed that yield stress (YS) significantly decreases and the elongation increases at temperatures higher than 200 °C. The ultimate tensile stress (UTS) continuously decreases with temperature. The creep parameters, namely stress exponent n and apparent activation energy Q, were found to be 25 ± 2 and 146 ± 20 kJ/mole, respectively. It was shown that plastic deformation during creep is governed by dislocation movements in primary aluminum grains. The tested material is actually an aluminum composite reinforced by sub-micron Si particles. The creep resistance of AlSi10Mg alloy fabricated by selective laser melting is close to that for aluminum matrix particles reinforced composites.

High-temperature mechanical properties of AlSi10Mg specimens fabricated by additive manufacturing using selective laser melting technologies (AM-SLM)

AlSi10Mg is the Al alloy most applied for selective laser melting (SLM) processing studies. The characteristics and the density obtained for SLM-processed material is extremely influenced by the quality of the starting powder. Since the microstructure obtained after SLM is often metastable, the required heat treatment to obtain an “optimized” microstructure can be significantly different than the one applied to conventionally cast or wrought Al alloys. In the present work, different thermal treatments have been applied to samples manufactured by SLM in order to investigate the effect on the microstructure and mechanical properties. The microstructural evaluation has been performed by SEM analysis and the mechanical properties have been determined by hardness measurements and tensile tests. Samples in the as-built condition, after stress relieving and under T6 heat treatment have been investigated to determine the best combination of properties.

Selective laser melting of AlSi10Mg alloy: influence of heat treatment condition on mechanical properties and microstructure

Reduction of the Residual Porosity in Parts Manufactured by Selective Laser Melting Using Skywriting and High Focus Offset Strategies

Distortions are critical in metal additive manufacturing, since they increase manufacturing costs, times and generate wastes and scraps due to dimensional inaccuracies in newly developed parts. Currently, corrective measures are often not taken until production step and they are mainly based on trial an error approach. Alternatively, Design Against Distortion paradigm is focused on the development of numerical modelling strategies which can anticipate distortions even from the design stage. This work is focused on the development of a rapid distortion prediction numerical methodology applicable to selective laser melting (SLM) process, taking into account the influence of different process variables, like scanning parameters and scanning strategy. This methodology is applicable to predict distortion behaviour of a real component manufactured by SLM, in order to determine the best supporting strategy and build up orientation. Therefore, current developments entail an innovative way of designing and manufacturing SLM manufactured parts which are more robust against distortions.

SLM (Near)-Net-Shape Part Design Optimization Based on Numerical Prediction of Process Induced Distortions

Stirling engine regenerator based on lattice structures manufactured by selective laser melting

Fatigue properties of parts are of particular concern for safety-critical structures. It is well-known that discontinuities in shape or non-uniformities in materials are frequently a potential nucleus of fatigue failure. This is especially crucial for the Ti6Al4V alloy, which presents high susceptibility to the notch effect. This study investigates how post-processing treatments affect the mechanical performance of Ti6Al4V samples manufactured by laser powder bed fusion technology. All the fatigue samples were subjected to a HIP cycle and post-processed by machining and using combinations of alternative mechanical and electrochemical surface treatments. The relationship between surface properties such as roughness, topography and residual stresses with fatigue performance was assessed. Compressive residual stresses were introduced in all surface-treated samples, and after tribofinishing, roughness was reduced to 0.31 ± 0.10 µm, which was found to be the most critical factor. Fractures occurred on the surface as HIP removed critical internal defects. The irregularities found in the form of cavities or pits were stress concentrators that initiated cracks. It was concluded that machined surfaces presented a fatigue behavior comparable to wrought material, offering a fatigue limit superior to 450 MPa. Additionally, alternative surface treatments showed a fatigue behavior equivalent to the casting material.

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Ane Miren Mancisidor

Papers

Selective laser melting of AlSi10Mg alloy: influence of heat treatment condition on mechanical properties and microstructure

Reduction of the Residual Porosity in Parts Manufactured by Selective Laser Melting Using Skywriting and High Focus Offset Strategies

SLM (Near)-Net-Shape Part Design Optimization Based on Numerical Prediction of Process Induced Distortions

Stirling engine regenerator based on lattice structures manufactured by selective laser melting

Effect of Post-Processing Treatment on Fatigue Performance of Ti6Al4V Alloy Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion