The non-destructive evaluation (NDE) of civil infrastructure has been an active area of research in recent decades. The traditional inspection of civil infrastructure mostly relies on visual inspection using human inspectors. To facilitate this process, different sensors for data collection and techniques for data analyses have been used to effectively carry out this task in an automated fashion. This review-based study will examine some of the recent developments in the field of autonomous robotic platforms for NDE and the structural health monitoring (SHM) of bridges. Some of the salient features of this review-based study will be discussed in the light of the existing surveys and reviews that have been published in the recent past, which will enable the clarification regarding the novelty of the present review-based study. The review methodology will be discussed in sufficient depth, which will provide insights regarding some of the primary aspects of the review methodology followed by this review-based study. In order to provide an in-depth examination of the state-of-the-art, the current research will examine the three major research streams. The first stream relates to technological robotic platforms developed for NDE of bridges. The second stream of literature examines myriad sensors used for the development of robotic platforms for the NDE of bridges. The third stream of literature highlights different algorithms for the surface- and sub-surface-level analysis of bridges that have been developed by studies in the past. A number of challenges towards the development of robotic platforms have also been discussed.

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/14/3954/pdf

Review of Non-Destructive Civil Infrastructure Evaluation for Bridges: State-of-the-Art Robotic Platforms, Sensors and Algorithms.

Wall cleaning robots are developed to cater to the demands of the building maintenance sector. The ability to climb vertical surfaces is one of the crucial requirements of a wall cleaning robot. Robots that can climb vertical surfaces by adhesion to a surface are preferred since those do not require additional support structures. Vacuum suction mechanisms are widely used in this regard. The suction force acting on the robot due to the negative pressure built up is used by these robots for the adhesion. A robot will fall off or overturn when the pressure difference drops down a certain threshold. In contrast, if the pressure difference becomes too high, the excessive amount of frictional forces will hinder the locomotion ability. Moreover, a wall cleaning robot should be capable of adapting the adhesion force to maintain the symmetry between safe adhesion and reliable locomotion since adhesion forces which are too low or too high hinder the safety of adhesion and reliability of locomotion respectively. Thus, the pressure difference needs to be sustained within a desired range to ensure a robot’s safety and reliability. However, the pressure difference built up by a vacuum system may unpredictably vary due to unexpected variation of air leakages due to irregularities in surfaces. The existing wall cleaning robots that use vacuum suction mechanisms for adhesion are not aware of the adhesion status, or subsequently responding to them. Therefore, this paper proposes a design for a wall cleaning robot that is capable of adapting vacuum power based on the adhesion-awareness to improve safety and reliability. A fuzzy inference system is proposed here to adapt the vacuum power based on the variation of the adhesion and the present power setting of the vacuum. Moreover, an application of fuzzy logic to produce a novel controlling criterion for a wall cleaning robot to ensure safety and reliability of operation is proposed. A fuzzy inference system was used to achieve the control goals, since the exact underlying dynamics of the vacuum-adhesion cannot be mathematically modeled. The design details of the robot are presented with due attention to the proposed control strategy. Experimental results confirmed that the performance of a robot with proposed adhesion-awareness surpasses that of a robot with no adhesion-awareness in the aspects of safety, reliability, and efficiency. The limitations of the work and future design suggestions are also discussed.

Design and Control of a Wall Cleaning Robot with Adhesion-Awareness

Rebar detection and localization for bridge deck inspection and evaluation using deep residual networks

In this paper, we present challenges and achievements in development and use of a compact ultrasonic Phased Array (PA) module with signal processing and imaging technology for autonomous non-destructive evaluation of composite aerospace structures. We analyse two different sets of ultrasonic scan data, acquired from 5 MHz and 10 MHz PA transducers. Although higher frequency transducers promise higher axial (depth) resolution in PA imaging, we face several signal processing challenges to detect defects in composite specimens at 10 MHz. One of the challenges is the presence of multiple echoes at the boundary of the composite layers called structural noise. Here, we propose a wavelet transform-based algorithm that is able to detect and characterize defects (depth, size, and shape in 3D plots). This algorithm uses a smart thresholding technique based on the extracted statistical mean and standard deviation of the structural noise. Finally, we use the proposed algorithm to detect and characterize defects in a standard calibration specimen and validate the results by comparing to the designed depth information.

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/20/2/559/pdf

Improving Depth Resolution of Ultrasonic Phased Array Imaging to Inspect Aerospace Composite Structures

Intelligent robotic systems for structural health monitoring: Applications and future trends

The aim of this article is to present a survey on inspection applications of Pneumatic Wall-Climbing Robots (PWCR). In general, a PWCR utilizes negative pressure as its adhesion method, through mainly suction cups or negative pressure thrust-based mechanisms. Their main advantage being their ability to climb non-ferromagnetic surfaces, such as glass and composite materials, in comparison with climbing robots based on magnetic adhesion methods. A growing application area is the utilization of PWCRs for inspection purposes for accelerating the otherwise time consuming procedures of manual inspection, while offering the important advantage of protecting human workers from hazardous and/or unreachable environments. This article will summarize the key enabling inspection applications of PWCRs in the following areas: a) Construction, b) Industrial Infrastructures, as well as c) Aircraft applications.

A survey on pneumatic wall-climbing robots for inspection

In this article, the adhesion modeling and control case of a Vortex Climbing Robot (VCR) is investigated against a surface of variable orientations. The critical adhesion force exerted from the implemented Vortex Actuator (VA) and the VCR’s achievable payload are analyzed under 3-DOF rotations of the test surface, while extracted from both geometrical analysis and dynamically-simulated numerical results. A model-based control scheme is later proposed, with the goal of achieving adhesion while the VCR remains immobilized, limiting the power consumption and compensating for disturbances (e.g. moving cables) leading to Center-of-Mass (CoM) changes. Finally, the model-based control scheme is experimentally evaluated, with the VCR prototype on a rotating and moving flat surface. The presented results support the use of the proposed methodology in climbing robots targeting inspection and maintenance of stationary surfaces (flat, curved etc.), as well as future robotic solutions operating on moving structures (e.g. ships, cranes, folding bridges).

On Model-based Adhesion Control of a Vortex Climbing Robot

In this article, the potential of utilizing an Electric Ducted Fan (EDF) as an adhesion actuator is investigated in detail, where an experimental setup is implemented for evaluating the EDF's ability to adhere to a test surface through negative pressure generation. Different design variables and modifications to the original EDF structure are tested, while their impact on the adhesion efficiency is experimentally evaluated. The presented investigation acts as a preliminary study to the goal of incorporating the resulting optimized negative pressure-based actuation method in a wall-climbing robot for inspection of aircraft fuselages.

/pdf/novel-considerations-on-the-negative-pressure-adhesion-of-19rs5y9dm5.pdf

Novel considerations on the negative pressure adhesion of electric ducted fans: An experimental study

In this article, the analytical modeling of a Vortex Robotic Platform (VRP) is investigated. Following the design of the Vortex Actuation (VA) unit and VRP presented in authors' previous work, the target goal is focused on providing a modeling methodology to include system dependencies on surfaces of different curvatures and robot orientations. The critical force model for guaranteeing successful adhesion is extracted for each case, while an overview of the maximum payload is also provided. The validity of the proposed methodology is evaluated through comparative simulations.

Vortex Robot Platform for Autonomous Inspection: Modeling and Simulation

In this article, the critical adhesion force and achievable payload of a Vortex Actuator (VA) are analyzed under 3-DOF surface rotations. A model-based control scheme is later proposed, with the goal of maintaining VA adhesion when immobilized, while limiting the power consumption and counteracting disturbances leading to Center-of-Mass (CoM) variations. Finally, the model-based control scheme is experimentally evaluated with the VA prototype on a flat surface under linear motions and rotations, thus supporting the incorporation of the VA in Climbing Robots (CRs) for inspection and maintenance of both stationary and moving surfaces.

Angelica Brusell

Papers

A survey on pneumatic wall-climbing robots for inspection

On Model-based Adhesion Control of a Vortex Climbing Robot

Novel considerations on the negative pressure adhesion of electric ducted fans: An experimental study

Vortex Robot Platform for Autonomous Inspection: Modeling and Simulation

On Adhesion Modeling and Control of a Vortex Actuator for Climbing Robots