https://www.geo.uni-bremen.de/~apau/dynamicclimate/CCYCLE/joachimski_et_al_2009.pdf

Devonian climate and reef evolution: Insights from oxygen isotopes in apatite

https://cyberleninka.org/article/n/651108.pdf

Application of organic petrography in North American shale petroleum systems: A review

Review and update of the applications of organic petrology: Part 1, geological applications

Summary Information on pressure (P) and temperature (T) is a fundamental aspect of research on metamorphic terrains. Unfortunately, many workers employ thermobarometers that are not experimentally calibrated, are insensitive or too sensitive to P-T changes, depend on a priori assumptions of water pressure (such as most petrogenetic grids), or are rapidly reset on cooling. Many systems are based on inaccurate thermodynamic data, involve solids with inadequately characterized structural states, neglect effects of thermal expansion and compressibility, or require long extrapolations in P-T-X space. For instance, application of the widely used garnet-clinopyroxene KD thermometer may require extrapolation to temperatures where current thermodynamic models of pyroxenes and garnets remain uncertain. Current versions of the Mg/Fe exchange thermometer for biotite-garnet involve substantial compositional extrapolations for many applications and the biotite is easily reset while cooling from higher T. The most widely employed barometer is based on dilution of the reaction grossular + kyanite + quartz = anorthite, but failure to correct molar volumes for P-T-X may yield systematic errors of 1–2 kbar for barometry of crustal metamorphites. Application of this barometer to rocks equilibrated at T < 600–650°C is presently unwarranted in view of unknown a-X relations of garnets and plagioclases at these T. However, by careful selections, thermobarometry may be accurate to ±50°C and ±1 kbar in many metamorphic terrains if a variety of different equilibria can be applied. Well-calibrated barometers that are useful for T τ 600–650°C rely on continuous reactions based on equilibria such as almandine + rutile = ilmenite + sillimanite + quartz, garnet + quartz = ferrosilite + plagioclase, garnet + rutile = ilmenite + anorthite + quartz, and almandine + sillimanite = hercynite + quartz. An extensive survey of the recent literature on thermobarometry of individual metamorphic facies reveals the range of P-T encountered in each facies. Temperature estimates are in good agreement with the inferences of Turner (1968). Barometry reveals that the blueschist, amphibolite and granulite facies give way to the eclogite facies over the pressure range of 12–16 kbar.

The current status of thermobarometry in metamorphic rocks

Permian ice volume and palaeoclimate history: Oxygen isotope proxies revisited

Experimental and field data are used to extend the utility of conodonts as semi-quantitative thermal indices into the regimes of regional and contact metamorphism, as well as hydrothermal alteration. An Arrhenius plot of data from induced conodont color alteration by pyrolysis in air at 1 atm was used to generate the geologic temperatures for conodont color-alteration indices (CAI) above 300 °C, that is, for CAI values of 5½ through 8. Such CAI values occur in very low- to medium-grade, regionally metamorphosed, contact-metamorphosed, and hydrothermally altered rocks. The uniformity or variability of CAI values within a sample, together with conodont texture, can help to distinguish grades and environments of metamorphism, particularly in metacarbonate sequences. Induced CAI by pyrolysis in a water-methane mixture at ½ kbar results in retardation of CAI and in a disparate mixture of both low and high CAI values within each experimental sample. In this system, color-alteration processes, above a CAI of 2 to 3, seem to change from predominantly carbonization to predominantly loss of organic matter, presumably by oxidation and volatilization of oxides. These experiments approximate the type of CAI mixture characteristically found in conodonts recovered from hydrothermally altered rocks. These data indicate that CAI values of 6 to 8 cannot be used to assess precise temperatures of hydrothermally altered rocks but may serve as useful indicators of potential mineralization.

Conodont color and textural alteration: an index to regional metamorphism, contact metamorphism, and hydrothermal alteration.

Samples of limestone collected from strata in the southern part of the western metamorphic belt of the Sierra Nevada, which traditionally have been assigned to the Calaveras Formation, have yielded Early Triassic conodonts, and samples of metavolcanic rock indicate an Early Jurassic Rb-Sr age These ages, together with previously published fossil and isotopic data, are consistent with general westward younging of units rather than with eastward younging as has been assumed until recently by many workers, chiefly on the basis of sparse observations of bedding facings The rocks are strongly deformed, and the possibility that tectonism rather than stratigraphic succession accounts for the age pattern cannot be dismissed

Anita G. Harris

Papers

Conodont color and textural alteration: an index to regional metamorphism, contact metamorphism, and hydrothermal alteration.

Calaveras reversed: Westward younging is indicated