Wireless Body Sensor Networks (WBSNs) constitute a subset of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) responsible for monitoring vital sign-related data of patients and accordingly route this data towards a sink. In routing sensed data towards sinks, WBSNs face some of the same routing challenges as general WSNs, but the unique requirements of WBSNs impose some more constraints that need to be addressed by the routing mechanisms. This paper identifies various issues and challenges in pursuit of effective routing in WBSNs. Furthermore, it provides a detailed literature review of the various existing routing protocols used in the WBSN domain by discussing their strengths and weaknesses.

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/14/1/1322/pdf

A Survey of Routing Protocols in Wireless Body Sensor Networks

This paper reports an experimental demonstration of a 32-Gbit/s wireless link using orbital angular momentum (OAM) and polarization multiplexing in a millimeter-wave regime at 60 GHz. Results of the analysis show that a higher carrier frequency reduces the propagation loss as well as the size of the transmitter and receiver, particularly for OAM channels with higher OAM values. Further, two different OAM channels (with l = +1 and l = +3) on each of the two polarizations are spatially multiplexed, and each channel carries 2-Gbaud signals with 16-QAM modulation. Spiral phase plates are used to generate 60-GHz OAM beams. The simulation results show that a higher carrier frequency plays a more significant role in reducing both the aperture size and the transmission loss for channels with higher OAM values. The bit error rates (BERs) of 4 channels are measured, and the raw BERs are found to be less than 3.8 × 10−3

32-Gbit/s 60-GHz millimeter-wave wireless communication using orbital angular momentum and polarization multiplexing

Wireless body area networks (WBANs) can be formed including implanted biosensors for health monitoring and diagnostic purposes. However, implanted biosensors could cause thermal damages on human tissue as it exhibits temperature rise due to wireless communication and processing tasks inside the human body. Again, Quality of Service (QoS) provisioning with multiconstraints (delay and reliability) is a striking requirement for diverse application types in WBANs to meet their objectives. This paper proposes TMQoS, a thermal-aware multiconstrained intrabody QoS routing protocol for WBANs, with the aim of ensuring the desired multiconstrained QoS demands of diverse applications along with keeping the temperature of the nodes to an acceptable level preventing thermal damages. We develop a cross-layer proactive routing framework that constructs an ongoing routing table which includes multiple shortest-path routes to address diverse QoS requirements. To avoid the packets to traverse through heated areas known as hotspot, we devise a hotspot avoidance mechanism. The route selection algorithm of TMQoS selects forwarder(s) based on the intended QoS demands of diverse traffic classes. The performance of TMQoS has been evaluated through simulation which demonstrates that the protocol achieves desired QoS demands while maintaining low temperature in the network compared to the state-of-the-art thermal-aware approaches.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1155/2014/676312

Thermal-Aware Multiconstrained Intrabody QoS Routing for Wireless Body Area Networks

Power radiation and radiated coupling among different structures represent an important area for research study. The partial element equivalent circuit method (PEEC) is a powerful technique which bridges the gap between the electromagnetic and circuit theories. In this paper, we develop a new approach for PEEC to calculate the distributive power radiation and couplings. With this approach, formulations for both the radiated power and the transferred power can be evaluated. Further, the physical meanings of the power results are interpreted according to the conservation of energy law. We use electric dipoles, magnetic dipoles and patch antennas as well as coupled microstrip lines to benchmark the method. The approach can also be applied to EMC/EMI and other power dissipation computations.

/pdf/distributive-radiation-and-transfer-characterization-based-2gkcqbtvzn.pdf

Distributive Radiation and Transfer Characterization Based on the PEEC Method

Optical properties of the Au-SiO2-Au nanobelt structure with quasiperiodicity along x-axis and fixed Au height, width and different spacer (dielectric) heights were numerically investigated for sensing application of liquids with refractive indices close to the water. Although both propagated surface plasmon mode and localized surface plasmon mode were recorded in the single-layer Au and Au-SiO2-Au nanobelt structure, only the localized surface plasmon mode was recorded in the Au-SiO2 nanobelt structure. The effects of increasing the dielectric layer (between two Au nanobelts) height on the extinction spectrum were observed as blue shift of whole extinction spectrum. It was found that the localized surface plasmon mode shift was negligible while the propagated surface plasmon mode was significantly shifted towards smaller wavelength. The minimum resonance linewidth was calculated as 42 nm at refractive index of 1.377, which is much smaller than that in the single-layer Au and Au-SiO2 nanobelt structures.

/pdf/optical-properties-and-liquid-sensitivity-of-au-sio2-au-1kn735eb0u.pdf

Optical Properties and Liquid Sensitivity of Au-SiO2-Au Nanobelt Structure

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Electromagnetic Simulation Using The Fdtd Method