Bats spend over half their lives subjected to the selective pressures of their roost environment; thus it is not surprising that the conditions and events associated with roosting have played a prominent role in their ecology and evolution Roosts provide sites for mating, hibernation, and rearing young; they promote social interactions and the digestion of food; and they offer protection from adverse weather and predators Conditions that balance natality and mortality and enhance survivorship are intimately linked to roost characteristics and are paramount to the success of a species The roosting ecology of bats can be viewed as a complex interaction of physiological, behavioral, and morphological adaptations and demographic response The roosting habits of bats may be influenced by roost abundance and availability, risks of predation, the distribution and abundance of food resources, social organization, and an energy economy imposed by body size and the physical environment For many bats the availability and physical capacity of roosts can set limits on the number and dispersion of roosting bats, and this in turn can influence the type of social organization and foraging strategy employed For example, some bats as refuging animals (see Hamilton and Watt, 1970) may benefit from improved metabolic economy and information transfer but may be subjected to the added costs associated with increased commuting time, competition for food, and risks of predation

Roosting Ecology of Bats

Little is known about the effects of roads on populations of animals. Pienaar (1968) summarized the possible effects of roads on organisms in a national park, but most workers have been concerned with mortality of animals along roadways (e.g. Simmons 1938; Knobloch 1939; Haugen 1944; McClure 1951; Hodson 1966; Evenden 1971; Bellis & Graves 1971). Roads affect many mammals by facilitating access to food or by increasing the food supply, but they may lead to damaging or fatal accidents. Bellis & Graves (1971) reported that Odocoileus virginiana* often fed on grassy road shoulders and as a result were frequently hit by vehicles. Taylor (1971) related the numerous skeletal fractures in east African viverrids to their habit of catching prey along roadways. In contrast, road verges provide a ready supply of grass and this has allowed some microtines to flourish and even expand their ranges (Baker 1971). In other cases, road verges provide important habitats for conservation of plants and animals (Anon. 1966; Kabat & Thompson 1963; Joselyn, Warnock & Etter 1968). However, roadside soil and vegetation are often contaminated by lead and other heavy metals used as additives in gasoline (Lagerwerff & Specht 1970; Smith 1971) and vegetation may be severely injured by high levels of sodium chloride (Hofstra & Hall 1971). Roads and railways have been found to inhibit the movements of feral Rangifer tarandus, but not those of domestic R. tarandus (Klein 1971). Studies of the effects of roadways on the dispersal of mammals are lacking although Buckner (1957) reported some data for Clethrionomys gapperi. This study documents the effects of roadways on the movements of small and mediumsized mammals (small mammals less -than 700 g; medium-sized mammals 700 to approx. 14 000 g) obtained from capture-recapture studies and from direct observation of roadways. The term road 'clearance' used in this paper, refers to the distance an animal had to move between forest margins to cross the roadway. Clearance may be equivalent to right-of-way, but this is not always the case.

The Effects of Roads on Populations of Small Mammals

Feeding ecology of Pipistrellus pipistrellus (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) during pregnancy and lactation. I. Foraging behaviour

The evolutionary theory of aging predicts that life span should decrease in response to the amount of mortality caused by extrinsic sources. Using this prediction, we selected six life history and ecological factors to use in a comparative analysis of longevity among 64 bat species. On average, the maximum recorded life span of a bat is 3.5 times greater than a non-flying placental mammal of similar size. Records of individuals surviving more than 30 years in the wild now exist for five species. Univariate and multivariate analyses of species data, as well as of phylogenetically independent contrasts obtained using a supertree of Chiroptera, reveal that bat life span significantly increases with hibernation, body mass and occasional cave use, but decreases with reproductive rate and is not influenced by diet, colony size or the source of the record. These results are largely consistent with extrinsic mortality risk acting as a determinant of bat longevity. Nevertheless, the strong association between life span and both reproductive rate and hibernation also suggests that bat longevity is strongly influenced by seasonal allocation of non-renewable resources to reproduction. We speculate that hibernation may provide a natural example of caloric restriction, which is known to increase longevity in other mammals.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1474-9728.2002.00020.x

Life history, ecology and longevity in bats

Biology of bats of the New World family Phyllostomatidae

Natural History of Vampire Bats

Observations of how the common vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus, prepares wound sites with the teeth and tongue are described, as well as how the wounds are made Included are the selection and preparation of the wound sites, shearing or shaving of hairs and feathers, a description of teeth and how they may be sharpened, followed by the mechanics of actual biting and feeding Types of wounds described include the typical bite, plus previously unknown wounds made by scraping, shaving, shearing, rasping and a defensive bite; also discussed are alimentation, aberrant food habits, factors in saliva and water consumption Pertinent literature is reviewed as well as implications for disease transmission It is suggested that similar studies should be made on Diaemus and Diphylla, the other two genera of the Desmodontidae

The biting and feeding habits of the Vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus*

House bat management

Bats and bat banding

The mode of attack by vampire bats, Desmodus rotundus (E. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire), on cattle in Mexico, under field conditions, was observed by means of night vision viewing 'scopes. The behavior reported includes the approach and landing of vampire bats on cattle; the reactions of cows to them; the apparent searching by bats for a suitable feeding site; interactions among vampires at a feeding site, suggesting a social hierarchy or the requisites of territoriality while feeding; the urination of bats while feeding; the drinking of water; the multiple feeding, where as many as four vampires were observed feeding at the same time from the same bite; the location of biting sites on the cow were the neck and flanks. The bats had no difficulty in launching themselves into flight after feeding. The foraging behavior of the vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus, under natural conditions in Mexico has been previously reported. However, little is known about the behavior of free-living vampire bats prior to foraging, when they actually approach and attack their prey. This paper describes the mode of attack of wild vampire bats on cattle and discusses its relation to the transmission of disease. These studies have been undertaken during the course of the Research on Paralytic Rabies Project conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations at the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Pe

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2989817.pdf

Arthur M. Greenhall

Papers

Natural History of Vampire Bats

The biting and feeding habits of the Vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus*

House bat management

Bats and bat banding

Attacking Behavior of the Vampire Bat, Desmodus rotundus, Under Field Conditions in Mexico'