This review highlights the progress and current status of remote sensing (RS) and geographical information systems (GIS) as currently applied to the problem of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The burden of P. falciparum malaria in SSA is first summarized and then contrasted with the paucity of accurate and recent information on the nature and extent of the disease. This provides perspective on both the global importance of the pathogen and the potential for contribution of RS and GIS techniques. The ecology of P. falciparum malaria and its major anopheline vectors in SSA is then outlined, to provide the epidemiological background for considering disease transmission processes and their environmental correlates. Because RS and GIS are recent techniques in epidemiology, all mosquito-borne diseases are considered in this review in order to convey the range of ideas, insights and innovation provided. To conclude, the impact of these initial studies is assessed and suggestions provided on how these advances could be best used for malaria control in an appropriate and sustainable manner, with key areas for future research highlighted.

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Earth observation, geographic information systems and Plasmodium falciparum malaria in sub-Saharan Africa.

This paper gives an overview of how certain meteorological data used in studies of the population dynamics of arthropod vectors of disease may be predicted using remotely sensed, satellite data. Details are given of the stages of processing necessary to convert digital data arising from satellite sensors into ecologically meaningful information. Potential sources of error in these processing steps are also highlighted. Relationships between ground-measured meteorological variables (saturation deficit, ground temperature and rainfall) and data from both the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's, polar-orbiting, meteorological satellites and the geostationary, Meteosat satellite are defined and examples detailed for Africa. Finally, the current status of existing satellite platforms and future satellite missions are reviewed and potential data availability discussed. How such satellite-based predictions have proved valuable in understanding the distribution of tsetse fly species in Cote d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso will be the subject of a future review.

Remotely sensed surrogates of meteorological data for the study of the distribution and abundance of arthropod vectors of disease

From Predicting Mosquito Habitat to Malaria Seasons Using Remotely Sensed Data: Practice, Problems and Perspectives

Enhancing temporal resolution of satellite imagery for public health studies: A case study of West Nile Virus outbreak in Los Angeles in 2007

This paper reviews the application of remote sensing to the study and control of invertebrate intermediate hosts and vectors for some of the most prevalent of human diseases worldwide. Examples are also taken from studies involving animal diseases that have considerable adverse effects on human welfare. The current status of remote sensing in epidemiology is assessed and suggestions are made on how, in the future, the two fields might be most profitably combined.

Barnett L. Cline

Papers

New eyes for epidemiologists: aerial photography and other remote sensing techniques