The last decade has witnessed a rapid increase in interest in multilingualism. Whereas a number of scholars in language acquisition research still base their work on the monolingual native speaker norm, others have developed more realistic viewpoints. This article provides an overview of international research on third language learning and teaching, including examples mainly from a European background. It describes sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic and educational aspects of multilingual teaching and emphasizes current research trends in this fairly young area of language teaching. The challenging ways which have been suggested to achieve multilingualism for all necessarily have to address learners, teachers, educators and policy makers. It will be argued that multilingual education can only be successful if language teaching in general is restructured and oriented towards multilingual norms.

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Teaching third languages: Findings, trends and challenges

The Global Scope and Politics of ELT: Critiquing Current Policies and Programs.- Introduction: The Global Scope and Politics of ELT: Critiquing Current Policies and Programs.- ELT and Colonialism.- Ideology, Language Varieties, and ELT.- Tensions Between English and Mother Tongue Teaching in Post-Colonial Africa.- A Critical Discussion of the English-Vernacular Divide in India.- ELT Policy Directions in Multilingual Japan.- English Language Teaching in Korea.- The National Curriculum Changes and Their Effects on English Language Teaching in the People's Republic of China.- ELT and Bilingual Education in Argentina.- English, No Longer a Foreign Language in Europe?.- Common Property: English as a Lingua Franca in Europe.- Teaching English as a Third Language.- Protecting English in an Anglophone Age.- Adult Immigrant ESL Programs in Canada.- Focus on Literacy.- Methods, Meanings and Education Policy in the United States.- The Goals and Focus of the ELT Program: Problematizing Content and Pedagogy.- Introduction: The Goals and Focus of the ELT Program: Problematizing Content and Pedagogy.- The Goals of ELT.- Integrating School-Aged ESL Learners into the Mainstream Curriculum.- Communicative Language Teaching.- Language Instruction Through Tasks.- Knowledge Structures in Social Practices.- Accelerating Academic Achievement of English Language Learners.- Predicting Second Language Academic Success in English Using the Prism Model.- Four Keys for School Success for Elementary English Learners.- Collaborating in ESL Education in Schools.- Organization of English Teaching in International Schools.- English for Specific Purposes.- An Interdisciplinary Approach to Teaching Adults English in the Workplace.- Assessment and Evaluation in ELT: Shifting Paradigms and Practices.- Introduction: Assessment and Evaluation in ELT: Shifting Paradigms and Practices.- Standards-Based Approaches to the Evaluation of ESL Instruction.- The Standards Movement and ELT for School-Aged Learners.- High-Stakes Testing and Assessment.- New Directions in Testing English Language Proficiency for University Entrance.- The Impact of Testing Practices on Teaching.- Classroom-Based Assessment: Possibilities and Pitfalls.- The Power of Language Tests, The Power of the English Language and the Role of ELT.- Different Definitions of Language and Language Learning.- The Learner and the Learning Environment: Creating New Communities.- Introduction: The Learner and the Learning Environment: Creating New Communities.- ESL Learners in the Early School Years.- The Adolescent English Language Learner.- What about the Students? English Language Learners in Postsecondary Settings.- Imagined Communities, Identity, and English Language Learning.- Academic Achievement and Social Identity Among Bilingual Students in the U.S..- Sociocultural Theory.- Mediating Academic Language Learning Through Classroom Discourse.- Creating a Motivating Classroom Environment.- Autonomy and Its Role in Learning.- Creating a Technology-Rich English Language Learning Environment.- The Internet and English Language Learning.- Constructs of Language in ELT: Breaking the Boundaries.- Introduction: Constructs of Language in ELT: Breaking the Boundaries.- Psycholinguistic Perspectives on Language and Its Acquisition.- Academic Language.- Teaching Implications of L2 Phonology Research.- Current Perspectives on Vocabulary Teaching and Learning.- Changing Approaches to the Conceptualization and Teaching of Grammar.- Extending Our Understanding of Spoken Discourse.- New Directions in Student Academic Writing.- From Literacy to Multiliteracies in ELT.- Technology and Writing.- Multimodal Pedagogies, Representation and Identity: Perspectives from Post-Apartheid South Africa.- Approaches to Genre in ELT.- Researching and Developing Teacher Language Awareness.- Research and Teacher Education in ELT: Meeting New Challenges.- Introduction: Research and Teacher Education in ELT: Meeting New Challenges.- Qualitative Approaches to Classroom Research with English Language Learners.- Action Research.- Narrative Inquiry and ELT Research.- Conversation Analysis: Issues and Problems.- Poststructuralism and Applied Linguistics.- What Shapes Teachers' Professional Development?.- Appropriating Uncertainty.- Teacher Education for Linguistically Diverse Communities, Schools, and Classrooms.- Challenges and Opportunities for the Teaching Profession.- Teachers' Roles in the Global Hypermedia Environment.- Preparing Teachers for Technology-Supported ELT.

International Handbook of English Language Teaching

The aim of this article is to give an up-to-date picture of study of the role of the background languages (the first language, L1, and the second language, L2) in third language (L3) acquisition, mainly in the two areas of vocabulary and syntax. These seem to be the two linguistic levels on which there has so far been most research concerning cross-linguistic influence (CLI). Lexical CLI and syntactic transfer have in most cases been studied separately, but as we will see studies indicate that L3 learners seem to rely on both vocabulary and grammar from their background languages, at least to some extent. The role of the background languages in morphology and phonology has been less investigated in L3 studies, although there are a few studies that indicate that L3 performance can reflect activation of previously acquired languages at these linguistic levels too. The paper also includes a survey of neurolinguistic approaches to multilingualism and discusses how these findings can contribute to the understanding of transfer in L3 acquisition.

The study of the role of the background languages in third language acquisition. The state of the art

Research on individual multilingualism and third language acquisition has expanded greatly in recent years. A theoretical correlate of this is the recognition of the fact that humans are potentially multilingual by nature, that multilingualism is the default state of language competence, and that this in turn has implications for an adequate theory of language competence, use and acquisition. Traditional second language acquisition (SLA) research usually treats all non-first language learners as second language (L2) learners. The recent focus on third language (L3) acquisition means that one has begun taking the complexity of multilingual learners' language background into account. This gives raise to reflection about some of the currently used basic terminology in the field, in particular how the concepts first, second and third language are understood. These terms are used variably in the literature. One approach, the common practice of labelling a multilingual's languages along a linear chronological scale as L1, L2, L3, L4 etc., is shown here to be untenable, being based on an inadequate conception of multilingualism. A different and arguably more satisfactory approach is based on the conventional dichotomy of L1 (established during infancy) versus L2 (added after infancy) and relates the notion of L3 to the presence of a more complex language background. The limitation to a three-order hierarchy involving the distinction between the concepts of L1, L2 and L3 is discussed and adopted as a working hypothesis, awaiting further research on this issue. Finally, the problems with the expressions first, second and third language have become more apparent with the emergence of research on L3 acquisition. Maybe the time is ripe to work for a change of these established terms? As possible replacements, primary, secondary and tertiary language are put forward for discussion. The paper stresses the need for reconsideration and clarification of the concepts L1, L2 and L3 from the point of view of multilingual language users and learners.

The languages of the multilingual : Some conceptual and terminological issues

The first part of this paper reviews research evidence for typological similarity and/or L2 status as determinants of cross-linguistic influence (CLI) in multilingual lexical production. The second part presents a model of vocabulary acquisition as a framework to explain CLI at the levels of form, (syntactic) frame, and meaning, as well as some of the developmental changes that have been reported for CLI patterns in relation to L3 learners’ proficiency. It is suggested that these patterns can be related to default processes and stages involved in the acquisition of individual word forms and their integration into networks of existing lexical triads, as described in the Parasitic Model of vocabulary acquisition. The third part of this paper points to research into the complexity and non-linearity of multilingual lexical development and the need to learn more about it.

Parasitic vocabulary acquisition, cross-linguistic influence, and lexical retrieval in multilinguals ∗

Tertiärsprachen : Theorien, Modelle, Methoden

Tertiär-und Drittsprachen : Projekte und empirische Untersuchungen

"Jeg valgte tysk fordi hele familien min ville det, men jeg angrer" : status for 2. fremmedspråk i norsk ungdomsskole

GFL is an open access journal, which allows readers to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of its articles and allow readers to use them for any other lawful purpose. Reuse of material from GFL is permitted with attribution for non-commercial purposes.

Mehrsprachigkeitsdidaktik im frühen DaF-Unterricht in Dänemark und Norwegen – Lehrer- und Schülerperspektiven

After a selective review of relevant literature about teaching business ethics, this paper builds on a summary of Fred Bird’s thoughts about the voicing of moral concerns provided in his book about moral muteness (Bird in The muted conscience, 1996). Socratic dialogue methodology (in the tradition of L. Nelson and G. Heckmann) is then presented and the use of this methodology is examined, for business ethics teaching in general, and for addressing our paper topic in particular. Three short form Socratic dialogues about the paper topic are summarized for illustration, together with preparation and debriefing suggestions for a Socratic dialogue unit as part of a business ethics course. In conclusion, Socratic dialogue design is related to the experiential learning approach, and characterized by a few basic traits, which imply both risks and opportunities for business ethics teaching.

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Beate Lindemann

Papers

Tertiärsprachen : Theorien, Modelle, Methoden

Tertiär-und Drittsprachen : Projekte und empirische Untersuchungen

"Jeg valgte tysk fordi hele familien min ville det, men jeg angrer" : status for 2. fremmedspråk i norsk ungdomsskole

Mehrsprachigkeitsdidaktik im frühen DaF-Unterricht in Dänemark und Norwegen – Lehrer- und Schülerperspektiven

Voicing Moral Concerns: Yes, But How? The Use of Socratic Dialogue Methodology