In the present paper, we describe a model of neurovisceral integration in which a set of neural structures involved in cognitive, affective, and autonomic regulation are related to heart rate variability (HRV) and cognitive performance. We detail the pathways involved in the neural regulation of the cardiovascular system and provide pharmacological and neuroimaging data in support of the neural structures linking the central nervous system to HRV in humans. We review a number of studies from our group showing that individual differences in HRV are related to performance on tasks associated with executive function and prefrontal cortical activity. These studies include comparisons of executive- and nonexecutive-function tasks in healthy participants, in both threatening and nonthreatening conditions. In addition, we show that manipulating resting HRV levels is associated with changes in performance on executive-function tasks. We also examine the relationship between HRV and cognitive performance in ecologically valid situations using a police shooting simulation and a naval navigation simulation. Finally, we review our studies in anxiety patients, as well as studies examining psychopathy. These findings in total suggest an important relationship among cognitive performance, HRV, and prefrontal neural function that has important implications for both physical and mental health. Future studies are needed to determine exactly which executive functions are associated with individual differences in HRV in a wider range of situations and populations.

Heart rate variability, prefrontal neural function, and cognitive performance: the neurovisceral integration perspective on self-regulation, adaptation, and health.

We studied the effects of cigarette smoking, sham smoking and smoking during adrenergic blockade in 10 subjects to determine whether smoking released the sympathetic neurotransmitter norepinephrine, as well as the adrenomedullary hormone epinephrine, and whether smoking-associated hemodynamic and metabolic changes were mediated through adrenergic mechanisms. Smoking-associated increments in mean (±S.E.M.) plasma norepinephrine (227±23 to 324±39 pg per milliliter, P<0.01) and epinephrine (44±4 to 113±27 pg per milliliter, P<0.05) were demonstrated. Smoking-associated increments in pulse rate, blood pressure, blood glycerol and blood lactate/pyruvate ratio were prevented by adrenergic blockade; increments in plasma growth hormone and cortisol were not. Since significant smoking-associated increments, in pulse rate, blood pressure and blood lactate/pyruvate ratio, preceded measurable increments in plasma catecholamine concentrations, but were adrenergically mediated, these changes should be attribut...

Norepinephrine and Epinephrine Release and Adrenergic Mediation of Smoking-Associated Hemodynamic and Metabolic Events

Objective: We describe major discoveries and developments in vigilance research. Background: Vigilance tasks have typically been viewed as undemanding assignments requiring little mental effort. The vigilance decrement function has also been considered to result from a decline in arousal brought about by understimulation. Methods: Recent research in vigilance is reviewed in four areas: studies of task type, perceived mental workload during vigilance, neural measures of resource demand in vigilance, and studies of task-induced stress. Results: Experiments comparing successive and simultaneous vigilance tasks support an attentional resource theory of vigilance. Subjective reports also show that the workload of vigilance is high and sensitive to factors that increase processing demands. Neuroimaging studies using transcranial Doppler sonography provide strong, independent evidence for resource changes linked to performance decrement in vigilance tasks. Finally, physiological and subjective reports confirm th...

http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1518/001872008X312152

Vigilance Requires Hard Mental Work and Is Stressful

Response expectancies, defined as ex- pectancies of the occurrence of nonvolitional responses, have generally been ignored in theories of learning. Research on placebos, hypnosis, and fear reduction indicates that response expectancies generate corre- sponding subjective experiences. In many cases, the genuineness of these self-reported effects has been substantiated by corresponding changes in behavior and physiological function. The means by which re- sponse expectancies affect experience, physiology, and behavior are hypothesized to vary as a function of re- sponse mode. The generation of changes in subjective experience by corresponding response expectancies is hypothesized to be a basic psychological mechanism. Physiological effects are accounted for by the mind- body identity assumption that is common to all non- dualist philosophies of psychology. The effects of re- sponse expectancies on volitional behavior are due to the reinforcing properties of many nonvolitional re- sponses. Classical conditioning appears to be one method by which response expectancies are acquired, but response expectancy effects that are inconsistent with a conditioning hypothesis are also documented.

Response expectancy as a determinant of experience and behavior.

Towards a model of stress and human performance

Psychophysiological reactions to understimulation and overstimulation.

Sustained performance in a visual reaction time test was examined in 12 moderate smokers. In a control condition without smoking, efficiency decreased over time. In a, condition, where 3 cigarettes were smoked at 20-min intervals, the subjects were able to maintain their initial level of performance throughout the session, mean reaction times being significantly shorter in the smoking than in the control condition. Smoking produced a significant increase in adrenaline excretion and heart rate.

Behavioural and physiological effects of cigarette smoking in a monotonous situation.

Urine samples were collected under constant conditions once every fourth week over 1 year. The subjects, 13 male and 11 female office employees and workers in industry, participated in the study during their ordinary daily work routine. Large interindividual differences in the rate of catecholamine excretion were obtained, whereas most subject showed a high intra-individual constancy of excretion. Neither variations over the year, nor differences between men and women in the excretion of adrenaline or noradrenaline, were statistically significant. However, the women differed from the men in that their adrenaline excretion was not significantly higher in a test session than during daily work routine.

Catecholamine output of males and females over a one-year period.

Catecholamine excretion, cardiovascular functions, and subjective effort were studied in 10 healthy male Ss in a control condition and in three experimental sessions in each of which 5 successive 6...

Physiological and subjective reactions to different physical work loads.

Effects of cigarette smoking were examined in eight healthy habitual smokers. Comparisons between effects on catecholamine excretion produced by 2, 4, and 6 cigarettes, smoked within a 2-hr period, showed a progressive increase in adrenaline excretion with number of cigarettes, while noradrenaline excretion was not noticeably affected. Comparisons between smoking and control conditions showed effects on hand steadiness, skin temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure. Dose- and time-response curves indicated that the relatively largest effect was regularly produced by the first cigarette, while the 2nd to 6th cigarette produced progressively smaller changes.

Birgitta Post

Papers

Psychophysiological reactions to understimulation and overstimulation.

Behavioural and physiological effects of cigarette smoking in a monotonous situation.

Catecholamine output of males and females over a one-year period.

Physiological and subjective reactions to different physical work loads.

Dosage and time effects of cigarette smoking.