The authors discuss the historical and contemporary connection to social justice issues in the fields of counseling and counseling psychology via the multicultural counseling movement. In addition, the authors present ways in which social justice issues can be addressed in counselors' and counseling psychologists' work with clients from diverse cultural backgrounds and in graduate training programs.

Social Justice and Multicultural Issues: Implications for the Practice and Training of Counselors and Counseling Psychologists

A case is made to consider social justice as a fifth force complementary to the psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential-humanistic, and multicultural forces in counseling This article explores how social justice is shifting the counseling paradigm and how the ACA (American Counseling Association) Advocacy Competencies (J A Lewis, M S Arnold, R House, & R L Toporek, 2002) complement this movement Implications are also discussed ********** The counseling profession is in the midst of a transformation Specifically, there is a growing movement within the profession calling on counselors to return to their roots by infusing a social justice perspective into counseling theories, paradigms, and practices (Toporek, Gerstein, Fouad, Roysircar, & Israel, 2006) A social justice perspective in counseling acknowledges issues of power, privilege, and oppression (Fouad, Gerstein, & Toporek, 2006) Moreover, a social justice counseling approach uses social advocacy and activism as a means to address inequitable social, political, and economic conditions that impede on the academic, career, and personal/social development of individuals, families, and communities The belief is that social advocacy is a necessary step to address issues of equity for those who have been marginalized in society This is a position that aligns with the American Counseling Association's (ACA; 2005) ACA Code of Ethics, which states in Section A6a, "when appropriate, counselors advocate at the individual, group, institutional, and societal levels to examine potential barriers and obstacles that inhibit access and/or the growth and development of clients" (p 5) The need to make social justice a clearer presence in the field is primarily fueled by forces such as the continued marginalization of those who live on the fringes of society (L Smith, Baluch, Bernabei, Robohm, & Sheehy, 2003); the growing awareness that well-intentioned counselors are not adequately drawing the connection between oppression and mental health issues (Jacobs, 1994); and the increasing realization that counseling paradigms, which focus solely on the individual without regard for environmental factors, may be limiting (Prilleltensky, 1994) These concerns have led to calls to expand the counselor role to include social justice advocacy (Fouad et al, 2006; Lee & Hipolito-Delgado, 2007) The resurgence of a social justice counseling perspective led Ratts, D'Andrea, and Arredondo (2004) to refer to the profession's attempt to return to its roots as a fifth force in the field Based on this perspective, social justice counseling follows the psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential-humanistic, and multicultural counseling forces that exist in the profession Other scholars have also followed suit indicating that social justice counseling is a reemerging force that is shaping how human behavior is explained and the ways in which counseling is currently being practiced (Fouad et al, 2006; Goodman et al, 2004; Lee, 2007) Labeling social justice as a fifth force is not a position shared by everyone For example, S D Smith, Reynolds, and Rovnak (2009) suggested that the social justice counseling movement should be viewed as a "recurring wave" (p 484) because the concepts are not new S D Smith et al further added that this movement needs to be grounded in more research if it is to gain credibility in the field I concur Social justice has been a part of the counseling profession since its inception, and more research needs to be conducted to determine best practices However, classifying social justice as a fifth force is not suggesting that it is a new concept Rather, it has more to do with acknowledging how the social justice perspective has matured since its infancy in the early 1900s Moreover, it is about recognizing the depth, breadth, and widespread impact the social justice perspective is currently having on the counseling profession …

Social Justice Counseling: Toward the Development of a Fifth Force Among Counseling Paradigms

The authors examined the relationship between collective self-esteem (i.e., the extent to which school counselors possess favorable perceptions of their professional or social group) and professional burnout in a sample of 533 school counselors. They also explored whether there were significant differences in professional burnout in school counselors by sex, geographic location of work setting, and number of years employed as a school counselor. Results indicated that higher collective self-esteem generally was associated with lower professional burnout. Moreover, the authors found that school counselors working in urban school environments reported significantly higher levels of burnout than did their peers working in other types of school environments. Furthermore, school counselors who had been employed in their roles for 20 years or longer reported higher levels of burnout than did their counterparts working fewer than 10 years. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Collective self-esteem and burnout in professional school counselors.

This article discusses development during the early adolescent years with a focus on recent research on the biological, cognitive, self-identity, and motivational changes that occur during this time period and the implications of this research for middle school counselors. Peer influences on early adolescents also are discussed, with the issue of school bullying receiving special attention. Studies are presented about how positive relations between teachers and students, and counselors and students, can ease the transition. Research is presented showing the positive effects of counseling programs designed to ease students' transition into middle school, along with suggestions for restructuring the roles of middle school counselors in order to be responsive to the developmental needs of early adolescents.

Early Adolescents Development across the Middle School Years: Implications for School Counselors.

For the past 10 years, qualitative research methodology has become more visible in counseling studies. Results from a content analysis of articles published between 1997 and 2002 in 4 professional journals in the field (Counseling and Values, Journal of Counseling & Development, Professional School Counseling, and The Counseling Psychologist) reveal that qualitative research represents 1/6 of all the articles published. Research trends in target publications are identified and suggestions for the development of the field regarding qualitative research are presented.

Qualitative Methodology in Counseling Research: Recent Contributions and Challenges for a New Century.

The multicultural counseling movement gained momentum in the 1970s when some mental health professionals noticed the poor quality of services that members of minority groups received (Sue, 1977). The terms cross-cultural or multicultural have been used to refer to counseling American minorities who were seen as culturally different. The term culturally different has led many researchers to study how certain cultures differ from the mainstream U.S. culture and how traditional counseling theories and techniques have to be adapted and improved in order to be applicable (Das, 1995). One of the first articles written about multiculturalism was "The Culturally Encapsulated Counselor" by Wrenn (1962). This article pointed out some of the client needs and flaws in counseling services. Since then, many articles have been published addressing the need to be "culturally appropriate, culturally relevant," and "culturally sensitive" in regard to minority groups. Many techniques have been developed to counsel certain groups (Pedersen, 1999; Sue, 1989, 1990, 1991). Due to the fact that the Hispanic/Latino population has risen sharply in recent years and is expected to keep increasing, the counseling field has placed special attention on this group (Lee, 1997). Since 1980, the Latino population has increased an estimated 69% nationwide. According to the National Council of La Raza (1990), the Mexican-American population alone increased from 2.1 million to 13.3 million in the past 30 years. To create context and perspective in regard to these statistics, the United States has the fifth largest Latino population in the world. The Latino population is considered the fastest-growing ethnic group in the nation, and it is expected to grow at a proportion three to five times faster than any other group (Casas & Vasquez, 1996; Hayes-Batista, Shink, & Chapa, 1988; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992). This growth can be attributed to recent immigration patterns and to the proportion of young people of childbearing age (Amaro & Russo, 1987). Educational, political, and social issues that impact the general population have accompanied this demographic phenomenon. Particular cultural characteristics, magnified by linguistic differences, have posed a challenge to educators and school counselors. Multiple studies have pointed out the need to accommodate this particular school population if success is expected (Aguilar, 1972; Cuellar, Harris, & Jasso, 1980; Marie & Marie, 1991; Moyerman & Foreman, 1992; Orozco, Thompson, Kapos, & Montgomery, 1993; Padilla & Salgado de Snyder, 1985). Proponents of multicultural counseling emphasize the need to modify therapeutic practices to reflect the Hispanic/Latino client's cultural characteristics as well as to "promote bilingualism rather than monolingualism (Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis,1992, p.479). It has been shown that members of minority groups have shown higher levels of responsiveness when culturally sensitive strategies have been utilized in counseling sessions (O'Sullivan, Peterson, Cox, & Kirkeby, 1989). It is somewhat ambitious to define and describe the impact and complexities of the Hispanic/ Latino culture in the United States of America in this study. Due to the diversity of the Hispanic/Latino community (especially in terms of racial composition), historically, the U.S. Census has used the term Hispanic to encapsulate members of Spanish-speaking groups regardless of racial or ethnic origin. In an effort to develop a unique identity detached from the Spanish colonialism, the term Latino (Latina for female) has been used to stress roots in a language (Latin roots) as opposed to roots in a country (Spain) (Aguilar, 1972; Dana, 1993). A general Latino population does not exist from an ethnocultural point of view; instead, there are multiple groups that are distinguished by the modification of the Spanish language, distinctive culture, or unique location where they live (Garcia & Zea, 1997). …

The Relationships among Counselors, ESL Teachers, and Students.

This article describes how the faculty of a counselor education program developed and implemented a social advocacy model of counselor preparation.

Developing a Social Advocacy Model for Counselor Education

The school counselor is rarely the only human service provider in the school who works with children and youth, their families, or even teachers. Other human service providers-called external providers in this articlehave found their way to the schools through a variety of routes. As their numbers increase, unavoidable issues for school counselors are raised. They will either be in conflict with external providers, competing for a job and limited resources, or they will find ways to work together so that the strengths of the external providers and the school counselors can be utilized in a complementary fashion for the benefit of the clients they serve. The number of external providers in the schools is on the increase, and this situation can present problems for school counselors. Evidence can be noted in the frequency with which the concern is mentioned on electronic bulletin board discussions such as the "International Counseling Network" (ICN) or the Counselor Education and Supervision (CES) group "L" bulletin board sponsored by the American Educational Research Association (AERA). Comments range from questions about how to deal with an influx of external providers who are not licensed as school counselors to descriptions of how school counselors and external providers have developed good working relationships in the school setting. Bulletin board comments indicate that in some instances licensed school counselors are being replaced by other service providers-either as school hires or as external providers. In other instances, external providers have been brought into the schools without clear definition of responsibilities and relationship to the school counselor, and role conflict has resulted. Much of the attention to integrated services is coming from organizations outside the school counseling arena such as the Center for School Mental Health Assistance (Garrison, 1996) and the National Center for Social Work and Education Collaboration (Clinton, 1996). In any event, the presence of external service providers has become so common that the implications for school counselors need to be addressed. In a recent random sampling of 10% of the public elementary, middle, and high schools in a western state, 80% of the schools reported the presence of one or more external providers at their school site. Respondents to the survey produced 25 different titles of human service professionals working in the schools, and some sites reported as many as five different providers at their site. Melaville and Blank (1991) clearly identify the need for collaboration in the statement, "At a time when many families across all income levels are experiencing greater stress and when child poverty is at record levels, the school cannot view itself as an isolated institution within the community, separate from family and community service" (p. 13). We take the position that there are not enough school counselors to do everything that needs to be done, especially in a time when student needs continue to increase in number and intensity. We also contend that there are few effective models of how different professional providers work together A system in which all of the social service provider components work together in harmony could be called a system of integrated services. School counselors need to understand how and where they fit into such a system. The term integrated services is used in this article to describe a system where several service providers, or more than one service agency, work together for the benefit of a single client or client group. The term will be applied to systems where most of the human services are delivered at the school site rather than having the student or client seek out the services at their several separate locations. Another term used to describe a similar organization and delivery of services is school-linked comprehensive social services (United States Department of Education/American Educational Research Association [USDE/AERA], 1995). …

School Counselors and External Providers: Conflict or Complement

Judith L. Osborne (Osbornej@ccmail.orst.edu) is assistant professor of counselor education, and Brooke B. Collison (collisob@ccmail.orst.edu) is professor and coordinator of counselor education, at Oregon State University, Corvallis; Cass Dykeman (jdykeman@ewu.edu) is associate professor of applied psychology and director of the school counseling program, Eastern Washington State University, Cheney; and Bobbie A. Birdsall (BBIRDSA@bsu.idbsu.edu) is assistant professor of counselor education at Boise State University. ncreasingly, people other than N school counselors provide counseling and other social services in schools. The increase in external

Brooke B. Collison

Papers

The Relationships among Counselors, ESL Teachers, and Students.

Developing a Social Advocacy Model for Counselor Education

School Counselors and External Providers: Conflict or Complement

External Service Providers in Schools: A Three-State Study.

Signature redacted for privacy