Using the case of Ulaanbaatar, Erdenet, and Darkhan cities from Mongolia, the study aimed to assess the contamination level and health risk assessment of heavy metals (As, Cr, Pb, Ni, and Zn) in urban soil. A total of 78 samples was collected from a variety of functional areas. The geoaccumulation index (Igeo) and integrated pollution index (IPI) were used in pollution assessment, while the health risk was scored using a hazard quotient (HQ) and health index (HI) for non-carcinogenic heavy metals, as well as a lifetime average daily dose (LADD) for carcinogenic heavy metals. The results show that the concentration of heavy metals in the soil samples taken from Darkhan city, which presented “uncontaminated” values in terms of Igeo for all metals, was relatively lower than other cities within the contamination assessment. Furthermore, the Igeo value signified “uncontimated to heavily contaminated” soil in the Ulaanbaatar and Erdenet cities. Typically, as for the IPI that observed similar trends with Igeo, the mean IPI values in Ulaanbaatar, Erdenet, and Darkhan were 1.33 (moderate level of pollution), 1.83 (moderate level of pollution), and 0.94 (low level of pollution), respectively. In terms of the assessment of potential health risk, there was a particular or different level of ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation exposure pathway for human health. Among these three different pathways, the ingestion was estimated by the main contributor for health risk. Each value of HQ and HI indicated that soil heavy metals of studied cities were at a safe level (<1) or had the absence of a significant health risk there. In addition, the potential health risk for children was greater than for adults, where heavy metal values of HI for children had a high value compared to adults. We estimated carcinogenic risks through the inhalation exposure, and as a result, there were no significant risks for human health in the studied cities from three elements (As, Cr, and Ni).

Contamination and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in the Soil of Major Cities in Mongolia.

Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia, suffers from severe air pollution during the long winter months, and its air pollution levels are among the highest in the world. Residents in the ger areas of Ulaanbaatar are unable to take advantage of the laws and policy regulations to reduce air pollution despite years of efforts to address this issue by international and local organizations including the government of Mongolia (GoM). Important challenges and barriers that have limited the success of various governmental policies that tackle air pollution problems were identified through participatory approaches. In order to do this, personal interviews were conducted with various stakeholders such as officials from central and local governments, government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), international organizations, and academia. Moreover, a workshop was conducted to elucidate the views of ger area community members in Ulaanbaatar. Based on the results of these interviews and workshop, the gaps between the policy approaches of the government, the actual conditions, and the desired situations of the residents to improve air quality in Ulaanbaatar were analyzed. The large gaps that were identified between the national and local perspectives on air pollution issues demonstrated that the reduction of air pollution in Ulaanbaatar requires solving fundamental and complex problems based on a better understanding of the specific conditions and needs of the residents of the ger areas. Moreover, active participation and discussion of the residents at the workshop indicated that community-based approaches could be applied in the cultural context of Mongolia with promising results in finding solutions.

https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/8/3309/pdf

Participatory Approach to Gap Analysis between Policy and Practice Regarding Air Pollution in Ger Areas of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

In the present study, we measured fine particulate matter (PM2.5) on the daily route of our study participant in order to determine her exposure and dose of PM2.5 in every microenvironment (ME). The measuring instrument, created by Nagoya University and Panasonic Corporation, Japan, was carried close to the breathing zone most of the time. Each data point was collected for 10-30 s or 2-6 cycles/min for 24 h from 1 October 2018 to 30 December 2018. Public transportation showed the highest level of PM2.5 compared with other MEs, including residence apartments, houses (ger district), the National University of Mongolia (NUM), food courts or restaurants, and other indoor locations. The personal daily average exposure to PM2.5 was 35 µg/m3 on 4 November 2018; on the other hand, this value was evaluated as the highest level of exposure compared to other measurement days. Interestingly, the study participant's exposure and dose of PM2.5 was lower than those stated in the World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines, with 25 µg/m3 from 4:00 to 7:00.

Mobile Measurement of PM2.5 Based on an Individual in Ulaanbaatar City.

Air pollution, including PM2.5 concentration in Ulaanbaatar (capital of Mongolia) is a serious matter of concern. As the majority of households use coal in large areas of the city, indoor air quality is also posing a serious risk to human health. This study investigated the concentration of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs) in indoor particulate matter (PM2.5) in 10 non-smoker households. Sampling was conducted in winter of 2018, between 27 January and 09 February. Concentrations of PM2.5 in the indoor air of households ranged between 62.8 and 324.8 µg m-3. Total concentration of PAHs also varied in a relatively wide range, between 46.2 and 175.7 ng m-3. Five-ring PAHs represented a considerably high fraction of total PAHs between 25 and 53%, benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF) and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) were the two predominant compounds within five-ring PAHs. Significant correlation was found between indoor and outdoor particulate matter levels in wintertime. Considering individual characteristic PAHs, heavier PAHs homologues (4- to 5-ring and 6-ring PAHs) were detected in all households, which suggested the influence of coal combustion and traffic exhaust. Health risk of children attributed to PAHs inhalation was assessed by taking into account the lifetime-average daily dose (LADD) and corresponding lifetime cancer risk. Lifetime average daily dose for children in only one household were slightly higher than health-based guideline level (1.0 × 10-5), defined by WHO, whereas LADD for adults and children of other households were within acceptable limit. The cancer risks from the exposure of children to air pollutants in all households except HH-3 were found high. In the Vibrio fischeri bioluminescence inhibition assay, according to the toxic unit (TU) values of indoor PM2.5 from ten households, all samples were classified as toxic. 

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Characteristics of particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor PM2.5 of households in the Southwest part of Ulaanbaatar capital, Mongolia

In recent years, there has been a trend of increasing criticism towards official development assistance (ODA) and the optimization of ODA policies, in a world of growing inequality between the Global North and Global South. To contribute to efficient ODA planning, this article proposes to innovatively apply system dynamics as an optimal tool for ex ante impact assessment. The study case is located in the slums of Darkhan (Mongolia), whose citizens and environment suffer the consequences of poor urban planning and lack of municipal solid waste management (MSWM). In this context, the present research proposes a policy of education and infrastructure as key factors for the improvement of MSWM in the context of an international cooperation plan, carried out by the Korean agency KOICA. To evaluate its impact and anticipate its effects, a tailor-made system dynamics model of a Darkhan district has been created, with the focus on the education process in order to simulate the different options of the proposed policies. The results show that education policy is particularly relevant for behavioral change, in terms of reducing waste burned and waste on the ground, and increasing composted and recycled waste. However, in this context, the policy is ineffective for improving the district’s water and air pollution situation. This article also offers discussions and recommendations to be applied to the international cooperation plan, which takes place in real life. It is expected that the described process of model construction and its results will contribute to the further use of system dynamics as a planning tool in the international cooperation field.

https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/8/4595/pdf

System Dynamics as Ex Ante Impact Assessment Tool in International Development Cooperation: Study Case of Urban Sustainability Policies in Darkhan, Mongolia

The purpose of this study is to analyses mass concentration varied by its measurement of air pollution in Ulaanbaatar city, Mongolia Ulaanbaatar city will have been increasing air pollution due to rapidly expanding vehicular population, growing industrial sector in last 10 years ago In addition, people use to heat the carbon from 10 month in every year This becomes a base cause of air pollution in Ulaanbaatar We studied a change of mass concentration an air pollution elements in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia To research work, we used information that based on data of my measurements of air pollution and Metropolitan air quality agency until 2006 to 2016 This research important result is air pollution levels are limited to the areas around Ulaanbaatar areas are the most polluted in the center of city are the least polluted areas whereas Tolgoit, Sapporo, 1st Khoroolol, Amgalan, Shar Khad are moderately polluted and the areas around Baruun 4 zam, Factory, Zaisan, Nisekh are normally polluted The results of pollution are illustrated four zones By dividing the polluted areas into such zones, we are trying to make it easier to take preventive measures against the pollution itself and protective measures for safeguarding the health of mass population

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/67/1/012029/pdf

Assessment of air pollution of settlement areas in Ulaanbaatar city, Mongolia

In this study, PM2.5 pollution of indoor and outdoor ambience has been measured on a household which is located between the Ger area and the residential district at simultaneous duration and point. In order to analyze, we used n = 3,119,500 data which was measured at each 10 second during 24 hours period. The instrument that was used to study, created by Nagoya University and Panasonic Corporation. In recent years, the capital of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, is leading the air pollution during the winter in the world, and the majority of this pollution is comprised of PM2.5 . Fine particles are very harmful to human health, and people spend approximately 90% of their lives in the indoor ambient. Thus, it is important to measure continuously the amount of indoor and outdoor PM2.5, so we have selected two points and indicated some statistical analysis on indoor and outdoor ambient. The results of this study indicate the PM2.5 concentrations of air in Ulaanbaatar are higher than the air quality standard in October and peak in the December and January. Also, due to the feature of the sites being measured, pollution of indoor ambient was demonsrated strong or weak level, which is depended on outdoor ambient pollution. The measurements of the majority days were a high level of pollution from at 00:00 to 04:00 pm, however, it was decreased at 5:00 pm, but it started to increase around 07:00 to 09:00 in the morning, and it decreased from 10:00 am to low level of the pollution whole day. At 18 o’clock in the evening, the pollution was increasing and at the peak of the day, the fine particle pollution up to 02:00 on the next day.

The some results of study on outdoor and indoor ambient PM 2.5

This study was carried out to assess the content of toxic heavy metals (As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, V, Zn), determine pollution and spatial distribution of topsoil in Darkhan city which is one of the largest cities in Mongolia, to determine pollution and spatial distribution. The selected study area of Darkhan city was divided into 3 zones (industrial zones, ger districts or livestock breeding zones and private apartments or residential district zones) representing settlement’s characteristics, and 14 points were sampled from topsoil. In order to estimate the level of pollution, the contamination factor, the degree of contamination, pollution load index, and enrichment factor that were formulated by Hakanson, Tomlison, Selvaraj were used in our study. The results were come out by comparing the heavy metal concentration of the topsoil with it`s background concentration. In terms of spatial distribution of heavy metals in the topsoil, heavy metals concentration in ger district and industrial areas is relatively high, but pollution assessment is not very high. As a result of the enrichment factor which was used for assessment of contamination source, the average concentration of 8 elements (As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, V, Zn) at 13 points presented that was derived from natural sources.

Assessment of heavy metal pollution of topsoil in settlement area, Darkhan city

The purpose of this study was to survey the seasonal variation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentration and determine spatial distribution in Darkhan city. Air pollution research and reports have been few and far between in most of parts in Mongolia, especially in Darkhan with respect to quantitative aerosol particle concentration. In this study, we utilized “PM2.5sensor” to measure spatial and seasonal variation of particulate matter concentrations in the study area. The monitoring points were chosen by basing on their specific features and set up directly at ambience outdoor. In each season, we carried out measurement at 3 points, which covered the ger district and apartment district areas for one day. Whereas, at one point the ger district was sampled for 4 days in summer. Fine particulate matter concentrations were the highest in the ger district area because there are many households that use coal for their daily heating and cooking, and at the bared surface. As for seasonal variation, in winter pollution reached 400 times higher than other seasons. Furthermore, at the ger district area, PM2.5 concentration was as much as 20 times greater than other points and it was observed that this too had its impact on the apartment district as well. As regards the air quality index, the level of particulate matter in the ger district area is extremely unhealthy to hazardous in winter. While, good and moderate indexes were mostly identified at monitoring points during the springtime.

Characterising seasonal variations and spatial distribution of ambient pm2.5 concentration based on short-term monitoring in darkhan city

The purpose of this research was to identify dispersion and transporting of white dust for tailings pond of Erdenet copper mining in Mongolia. Spring and autumn have a significantly higher level of PM10 mass concentration in Erdenet city. Probably caused by the stagnant atmosphere which leads to pollution’s cumulative effect and ‘white dust’ from the storage of tailings pond in spring and autumn. We used meteorological data for 2015 gathered from Information and Research Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment (IRIMHE) in Erdenet city and GDAS meteorological data provided by U.S NOAA. In the present study, white dust simulation by using the ArcGIS, HYSPLIT program modeling. The Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model is used to identify the white dust dispersion and transportation trends. According to the simulation from model HYSPLIT, white dust was spread between 14 and 65 km in 2015. The main month of white dust distribution was May and October when mass concentration of PM10 was high due to white dust. White dust distribution was four times lower when the rainy day.

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Byambatseren Ch

Papers

Assessment of air pollution of settlement areas in Ulaanbaatar city, Mongolia

The some results of study on outdoor and indoor ambient PM 2.5

Assessment of heavy metal pollution of topsoil in settlement area, Darkhan city

Characterising seasonal variations and spatial distribution of ambient pm2.5 concentration based on short-term monitoring in darkhan city

White dust simulation for tailings pond of erdenet copper mining using hysplit