Twelve strains of different Bacteroides species were tested for their efficiency of detection of bacteriophages from sewage The host range of several isolated phages was investigated The results indicated that there was a high degree of strain specificity Then, by using Bacteroides fragilis HSP 40 as the host, which proved to be the most efficient for the detection of phages, feces from humans and several animal species and raw sewage, river water, water from lagoons, seawater, groundwater, and sediments were tested for the presence of bacteriophages that were active against B fragilis HSP 40 Phages were detected in feces of 10% of the human fecal samples tested and was never detected in feces of the other animal species studied Moreover, bacteriophages were always recovered from sewage and sewage-polluted samples of waters and sediments, but not from nonpolluted samples The titers recovered were dependent on the degree of pollution in analyzed waters and sediments

https://aem.asm.org/content/aem/53/7/1632.full.pdf

Bacteriophages active against Bacteroides fragilis in sewage-polluted waters.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the presence of pathogenic viruses in the Moselle River and to compare the usefulness of thermotolerant coliforms and somatic coliphages as tools for river water quality assessment in terms of viral contamination. Thermotolerant coliforms and somatic coliphages were enumerated by standardized methods in 170 samples of river water drawn from five sampling sites along the Moselle River (eastern France). BGM cell culture and integrated cell culture-reverse transcription-PCR DNA enzyme immunoassay were used to determine the presence of pathogenic viral genome (Enterovirus and Norovirus genogroup II [GGII]) and infectious Enterovirus spp. in 90 1-liter samples. No infectious Enterovirus spp. were isolated, but Enterovirus and Norovirus GGII genomes were detected in 38% of the samples. Norovirus GGII genome was mostly detected in winter, whereas Enterovirus genome was mostly detected in summer and fall. Somatic coliphages appeared to be less sensitive to higher river water temperature than thermotolerant coliforms. Furthermore, the number of river water samples positive for pathogenic viral genome increased with increasing concentration of somatic coliphages, whereas coliform concentration was unrelated to viral genome contamination. Consequently somatic coliphages, which are less sensitive to environmental factors than thermotolerant coliforms in river water, would provide a promising tool for assessment of river water quality in terms of fecal and viral pollution.

Comparison of Coliforms and Coliphages as Tools for Assessment of Viral Contamination in River Water

A new procedure for detecting and counting enteroviruses based on the VIRADEN method applied to 10 liters of seawater was examined. It improved the efficiency of detection by taking into account both the number of positive isolations and numbers found with traditional methods. It was then used to quantify viruses in bathing waters. A number of bacterial indicators and bacteriophages were also tested. Cultivable enteroviruses were detected in 55% of the samples, most of which complied with bacteriological criteria. In contrast, viral genomes were only detected in 20% of the samples by reverse transcription-PCR. Somatic coliphages outnumbered all other indicators. F-specific RNA phages were detected in only 15% of the samples, whereas phages infecting Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron were detected in 70% of samples. A numerical relationship between the numbers of enteroviruses and the numbers of enterococci and somatic coliphages was observed. In situ inactivation experiments showed that viruses persisted significantly longer than the bacterial indicators. Only somatic coliphages and bacteriophages infecting Bacteroides persisted longer than the viruses. These results explain the numbers of enteroviruses and indicators in bathing waters attending the numbers usually found in sewage in the area. Somatic coliphages show a very good potential to predict the risk of viruses being present in bathing waters.

Enteroviruses and bacteriophages in bathing waters.

Some New Zealand regional councils are examining the use of faecal streptococci (or the subset, enterococci) to assist in identifying pollution sources, or as better indicators of disease risk in bathing waters than faecal coliforms. However, in spite of worldwide investigation, faecal streptococci have largely failed to fulfil their potential as pollution source (human versus animal) indicators in receiving waters. Many qualifications accompany the use of faecal coliform: faecal streptococci (FC: FS) ratios, and the species identification approach (using biochemical and DNA‐based methods) has produced inconclusive results. Nevertheless, the FC: FS shift method (in which the ratio changes under sample storage) may warrant further investigation. Although reported results vary widely, most studies indicate that faecal streptococci outlive faecal coliforms in receiving waters and are more resistant to sunlight‐induced inactivation. USEPA epidemiological studies showed that enterococcus concentration...

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00288330.1993.9516550

Faecal streptococci as faecal pollution indicators: A review. Part II: Sanitary significance, survival, and use

1.1. Viruses and Environmental Virology Environmental virology may be defined as the study of viruses that can be transmitted through various environments (water, sewage, soil, air, or surfaces) or food and persist enough in these vehicles to represent a health threat. A wide variety of different viruses, representing most of the families of animal viruses, can be present in human and animal fecal wastes and urine. Especially important are a variety of nonenveloped human and animal enteric pathogenic viruses that can enter the environment through the discharge of waste materials from infected individuals; contaminate food products and drinking and recreational waters; and be transmitted back to susceptible individuals to continue the cycle of infection (Table 6.1). It is estimated that billions of cases of gastrointestinal illness occur annually worldwide (Parashar et al., 1998; Oh et al., 2003). A good deal of these diarrheal cases are to some extent the result of fecal contamination of the environment (Cabelli et al., 1982; Koopman et al., 1982; Fattal and Shuval, 1989; Moore et al., 1994) while outbreaks of hepatitis A and E are associated with water, shellfish, and crops (Melnick, 1957; Reid and Robinson, 1987; Halliday et al., 1991; Bosch et al., 1991, 2001). The significance to human health of many of the non-human animal viruses present in environmental samples is less well understood and remains uncertain or unknown for many of them. It is remarkable, however, that zoonotic viruses infecting humans continue to be discovered or appear to reemerge as important human pathogens. One example of an emerging disease is severe acute respiratory syndrome, or SARS, reported in November 2002 (Ksiazek et al., 2003). The primary mode of transmission of the SARS coronavirus appears to be direct mucous membrane contact with infectious respiratory droplets and/or through exposure to fomites. Several coronaviruses are known to spread by the fecal-oral route, but there is no current evidence that this mode of transmission plays a key role in the transmission of SARS, although there is a considerable shedding of the virus in stools (Tsang, 2003). As a scientific discipline, environmental virology was born after a large hepatitis outbreak occurred in New Delhi between December 1955 and January 1956. The origin of the outbreak, which was attributed to hepatitis A at the time but now confirmed to be hepatitis E, was the contamination

Survival and Transport of Enteric Viruses in the Environment

Viral pollution determination of superficial waters (river water and sea-water) from the urban area of Barcelona (Spain)

Des echantillons de 25 litres d'eau ont ete preleves a l'entree et a la sortie d'une station de traitement des eaux residuaires comprenant decantation primaire, boues activees et decantation secondaire. Les echantillons ont ete soumis a l'analyse virologique d'une part directement, d'autre part apres concentration sur poudre de verre. Il s'est avere que la meilleure technique d'analyse est celle qui fait appel a la concentration sur poudre de verre. L'efficacite du traitement vis-a-vis des virus est importante puisque 98,2 % des virus sont retenus dans la station. Cependant la station rejette encore dans le milieu exterieur plus de 108 particules virales en 24 heures, ce qui pose le probleme de la mise en oeuvre d'un traitement tertiaire.

Etude quantitative de la population virale dans l'affluent et l'effluent d'une station d'épuration d'eaux résiduaires

A virological study of sea water was carried out at Barcelona (Spain) in June and September 1979 Three beaches were sampled in June; the September samples were taken in front of an outlet at 2, 5, 20 and 1,000 m offshore All of the samples from the 3 beaches contained viruses, at rates varying from 012 to 172 MPNCU/l Vaccinal poliovirus type 3 and coxsackie B5 predominated For the offshore samples, 55% were positive with rates ranging from 015 to 036 MPNCU/l Vaccinal poliovirus type 3 was clearly predominant There was no significant difference in viral pollution rates between 2m and 1,000 m offshore

Viral pollution of seawater at Barcelona.

Samples of piped water were taken from the source of the springs in ten villages in Lorraine. Usually this water has not been subjected to disinfection. The water was tested for fecal indicator bacteria, phages and animal viruses. Of the ten samples examined, seven contained no fecal indicator bacteria, phages or animal viruses, in three samples, however, Reovirus type 2 was found. Among the three positive samples only one contained fecal bacteria and phages. Consequently, the two other samples could be regarded as drinking water, despite the presence of viruses. Such an approach poses the problem of testing drinking water for viruses and suggests that viral tests should be undertaken as part of the water quality control.

Recovery of reoviruses from tap water.

The authors determine the quantities of viruses present in raw and secondary wastewaters of a big and a small city. The isolation of viruses is done after a concentration step using a glass powder fluid layer technique. The results suggest that this method using glass powder as virus adsorbant at pH 3.5 is really performant for virus concentration. The virus retention by the treatment plants ranges from 90% to 99% in the big city and from 78% to 99% in the other one.

C. Finance

Papers

Viral pollution determination of superficial waters (river water and sea-water) from the urban area of Barcelona (Spain)

Etude quantitative de la population virale dans l'affluent et l'effluent d'une station d'épuration d'eaux résiduaires

Viral pollution of seawater at Barcelona.

Recovery of reoviruses from tap water.

Recovery of Viruses Found in Wastewater Before and After Activated Sludge Treatment Using a Technique of Adsorption-Elution on Glass Powder