A variety of life functions and cognitive processes (CPs) have been identified in cognitive informatics, psychology, cognitive science, and neurophilosophy. This paper attempts to develop a layered reference model of the brain (LRMB) that formally and rigorously explains the functional mechanisms and CPs of natural intelligence. A comprehensive and coherent set of mental processes and their relationships is identified in LRMB that encompasses 37 CPs at six layers known as the sensation, memory, perception, action, metacognitive, and higher cognitive layers from the bottom-up. The LRMB reference model provides an integrated framework for modeling the brain and the mind. LRMB also enables future extension and refinement of the CPs within the same hierarchical framework. LRMB can be applied to explain a wide range of physiological, psychological, and cognitive phenomena in cognitive informatics, particularly the relationships and interactions between the inherited and the acquired life functions, as well as those of the subconscious and conscious CPs.

A layered reference model of the brain (LRMB)

Wound healing is a complex, multifaceted process which is influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The pH of the wound can affect many factors including oxygen release, angiogenesis, protease activity, and bacterial toxicity. Chronic non-healing wounds have an elevated alkaline environment. Healing occurs more readily in an acid environment. Current wound bed assessment is dependent on subjective evaluation with few diagnostic instruments available or suited to routine practice. Monitoring surface pH may provide a method of ‘measuring’ the condition of the wound bed and ultimately aid in determining the wound’s response to treatment.

The significance of surface pH in chronic wounds

We introduce a comprehensive biomechanical model of the human upper body. Our model confronts the combined challenge of modeling and controlling more or less all of the relevant articular bones and muscles, as well as simulating the physics-based deformations of the soft tissues. Its dynamic skeleton comprises 68 bones with 147 jointed degrees of freedom, including those of each vertebra and most of the ribs. To be properly actuated and controlled, the skeletal submodel requires comparable attention to detail with respect to muscle modeling. We incorporate 814 muscles, each of which is modeled as a piecewise uniaxial Hill-type force actuator. To simulate biomechanically-realistic flesh deformations, we also develop a coupled finite element model with the appropriate constitutive behavior, in which are embedded the detailed 3D anatomical geometries of the hard and soft tissues. Finally, we develop an associated physics-based animation controller that computes the muscle activation signals necessary to drive the elaborate musculoskeletal system in accordance with a sequence of target poses specified by an animator.

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Comprehensive biomechanical modeling and simulation of the upper body

Measurement and characterization of soft tissue behavior with surface deformation and force response under large deformations.

Context: Functional exercises are often used in strengthening programs after lower extremity injury. Activation levels of the stabilizing hip muscles have not been documented. Objective: To document the progression of hip-muscle activation levels during 3 lower extremity functional exercises. Design: Cross-sectional. Setting: Laboratory. Participants: 44 healthy individuals, 22 women and 22 men. Intervention: Subjects, in 1 testing session, completed 3 trials each of the lunge (LUN), single-leg squat (SLSQ), and step-up-and-over (SUO) exercise. Main Outcome Measures: Root-mean-square muscle amplitude (% reference voluntary muscle contraction) was measured for 5 muscles during the 3 exercises: rectus femoris (RF), dominant and nondominant gluteus medius (GMed_D and GMed_ND), adductor longus (ADD), and gluteus maximus (GMX). Results: The RF, GMAX, and GMed_D were activated in a progression from least to greatest during the SUO, LUN, and SLSQ. The progression for the GMed_ND activation was from least to greatest during the SLSQ, SUO, and then LUN. Activation levels of the ADD showed no progression. Conclusion: Progressive activation levels were documented for muscles acting on the hip joint during 3 functional lower extremity exercises. The authors recommend using this exercise progression when targeting the hip muscles during lower extremity strengthening. Keywords: electromyography, gluteus medius, exercise progression Activation levels of the muscles surrounding the hip joint have become an area of increasing interest in reference to lower extremity injuries. 1–4 Muscle weakness, specifically of the hip-abductor muscle group, has been observed in patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome, 3,5 iliotibial band syndrome, 6,7 anterior cruciate ligament injuries, 8 and ankle instability. 1,2 Previous studies have reported activation levels of the gluteus medius during rehabilitation exercises. 9–14 Less attention, however, has been paid to the activation levels of other muscles that help stabilize the hip joint during functional exercises. To progress a patient back to full activity, it is necessary to understand the complete muscular contribu

C. Kumarlal Fernando

Papers

Human Anatomy and Physiology, ed 2

The Physiology of the Joints Vol 3, The Trunk and the Vertebral Column