This review aims to briefly discuss a short list of a broad variety of inflammatory cytokines. Numerous studies have implicated that inflammatory cytokines exert important effects with regard to various inflammatory diseases, yet the reports on their specific roles are not always consistent. They can be used as biomarkers to indicate or monitor disease or its progress, and also may serve as clinically applicable parameters for therapies. Yet, their precise role is not always clearly defined. Thus, in this review, we focus on the existing literature dealing with the biology of cytokines interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1, IL-33, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), IL-10, and IL-8. We will briefly focus on the correlations and role of these inflammatory mediators in the genesis of inflammatory impacts (e.g., shock, trauma, immune dysregulation, osteoporosis, and/or critical illness).

Cytokines in Inflammatory Disease.

// Feifei Qiu 1 , Chun-Ling Liang 1 , Huazhen Liu 1 , Yu-Qun Zeng 2 , Shaozhen Hou 3 , Song Huang 3 , Xiaoping Lai 3 , Zhenhua Dai 1 1 Section of Immunology, Guangdong Provincial Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences and Guangdong Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China 2 Department of Nephrology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China 3 School of Chinese Materia Medica, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China Correspondence to: Zhenhua Dai, email: zdai2009@outlook.com Keywords: cigarette smoking, immunoregulation, adaptive immunity, and innate immunity Received: September 16, 2016      Accepted: November 12, 2016      Published: November 25, 2016 ABSTRACT Cigarette smoking is associated with numerous diseases and poses a serious challenge to the current healthcare system worldwide. Smoking impacts both innate and adaptive immunity and plays dual roles in regulating immunity by either exacerbation of pathogenic immune responses or attenuation of defensive immunity. Adaptive immune cells affected by smoking mainly include T helper cells (Th1/Th2/Th17), CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells, CD8+ T cells, B cells and memory T/B lymphocytes while innate immune cells impacted by smoking are mostly DCs, macrophages and NK cells. Complex roles of cigarette smoke have resulted in numerous diseases, including cardiovascular, respiratory and autoimmune diseases, allergies, cancers and transplant rejection etc. Although previous reviews have described the effects of smoking on various diseases and regional immunity associated with specific diseases, a comprehensive and updated review is rarely seen to demonstrate impacts of smoking on general immunity and, especially on major components of immune cells. Here, we aim to systematically and objectively review the influence of smoking on major components of both innate and adaptive immune cells, and summarize cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying effects of cigarette smoking on the immune system. The molecular pathways impacted by cigarette smoking involve NFκB, MAP kinases and histone modification. Further investigations are warranted to understand the exact mechanisms responsible for smoking-mediated immunopathology and to answer lingering questions over why cigarette smoking is always harmful rather than beneficial even though it exerts dual effects on immune responses.

https://www.oncotarget.com/index.php?journal=oncotarget&page=article&op=download&path%5B%5D=13613&path%5B%5D=43241

Impacts of cigarette smoking on immune responsiveness: Up and down or upside down?

Antibiotics for asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy.

Brain endocannabinoid (eCB) signalling influences the motivation for natural rewards (such as palatable food, sexual activity and social interaction) and modulates the rewarding effects of addictive drugs. Pathological forms of natural and drug-induced reward are associated with dysregulated eCB signalling that may derive from pre-existing genetic factors or from prolonged drug exposure. Impaired eCB signalling contributes to dysregulated synaptic plasticity, increased stress responsivity, negative emotional states and cravings that propel addiction. Understanding the contributions of eCB disruptions to behavioural and physiological traits provides insight into the eCB influence on addiction vulnerability.

Endocannabinoid signalling in reward and addiction

Transglutaminases (TGs) are multifunctional proteins having enzymatic and scaffolding functions that participate in regulation of cell fate in a wide range of cellular systems and are implicated to have roles in development of disease. This review highlights the mechanism of action of these proteins with respect to their structure, impact on cell differentiation and survival, role in cancer development and progression, and function in signal transduction. We also discuss the mechanisms whereby TG level is controlled and how TGs control downstream targets. The studies described herein begin to clarify the physiological roles of TGs in both normal biology and disease states.

Transglutaminase Regulation of Cell Function

Citrus bergamia Risso et Poiteau, also known as "Bergamot," is a plant belonging to the Rutaceae family, defined as a hybrid of bitter orange and lemon. It is an endemic plant of the Calabria region (Italy). Bergamot fruit is primarily used for the extraction of its essential oil (bergamot essential oil: BEO), employed in perfume, cosmetics, food, and confections. The aim of this review was to collect recent data from the literature on C. bergamia essential oil and, through a critical analysis, focus on safety and the beneficial effects on human health. Clinical studies on the therapeutic applications of BEO exclusively focus on the field of aromatherapy, suggesting that its use can be useful for reducing anxiety and stress.

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Citrus bergamia essential oil: from basic research to clinical application

Background Cannabidiol (CBD) is among the major secondary metabolites of Cannabis devoid of the delta-9-tetra-hydrocannabinol psychoactive effects. It is a resorcinol-based compound with a broad spectrum of potential therapeutic properties, including neuroprotective effects in numerous pathological conditions. CBD neuroprotection is due to its antioxidant and antiinflammatory activities and the modulation of a large number of brain biological targets (receptors, channels) involved in the development and maintenance of neurodegenerative diseases. Objective The aim of the present review was to describe the state of art about the pre-clinical research, the potential use and, when existing, the clinical evidence related to CBD in the neurological field. Method Collection of all the pre-clinical and clinical findings carried out investigating the effects of CBD alone, not in combination with other substances, in the neurological arena with the exclusion of studies on neuropsychiatric disorders. Results Laboratory and clinical studies on the potential role of CBD in Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), multiple sclerosis (MS), Huntington's disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ALS), cerebral ischemia, were examined. Conclusion Pre-clinical evidence largely shows that CBD can produce beneficial effects in AD, PD and MS patients, but its employment for these disorders needs further confirmation from well designed clinical studies. CBD pre-clinical demonstration of antiepileptic activity is supported by recent clinical studies in human epileptic subjects resistant to standard antiepileptic drugs showing its potential use in children and young adults affected by refractory epilepsy. Evidence for use of CBD in PD is still not supported by sufficient data whereas only a few studies including a small number of patients are available.

Neurological Aspects of Medical Use of Cannabidiol.

Citrus bergamia Risso et Poiteau (“Bergamot”) originated from the Mediterranean ecoregion (southern Italy, Calabria). Bergamot essential oil (BEO) is used in perfumes, cosmetics, and for stress reduction. Juice from C. bergamia has been used for hyperlipidemia. We evaluated literature published on C. bergamia clinical applications. Clinical trials on C. bergamia not combined with other substances, published in English, were searched. We selected ten articles, six describing BEO effects on stress, three reporting effects of polyphenolic fraction of C. bergamia juice in hyperlipidemia and the last describing BEO effects in chronic psoriasis. Clinical studies were analyzed following Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials for herbal therapy. Studies were conducted on small sample sizes and not have high quality level. Analysis indicates that BEO aromatherapy could be safe and useful to reduce stress symptoms. One study suggests its potential supportive role in ultraviolet B therapy against psoriasis. Supplementation with polyphenols from bergamot juice reduces plasma lipids and improves lipoprotein profile in moderate hyperlipidemia. Effectiveness and safety of C. bergamia cannot be definitively drawn because of publication bias and low quality level of the majority of studies. Further large-scale trials with rigorous design are required to define the role of C. bergamia in clinical practice. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Clinical Pharmacology of Citrus bergamia: A Systematic Review

Several inflammatory cytokines play a key part in the induction of osteoporosis. Until now, involvement of the Th2 cytokine interleukin-31 (IL-31) in osteoporosis hadn’t yet been studied. IL-31 is a proinflammatory cytokine mediating multiple immune functions, whose involvement in a wide range of diseases, such as atopic dermatitis, inflammatory bowel diseases and cutaneous lymphomas, is now emerging. Given the important role of IL-31 in inflammation, we measured its serum levels in postmenopausal osteoporotic patients. In fifty-six postmenopausal females with osteoporosis and 26 healthy controls, bone mineral density (BMD) measurements were performed by using calcaneal quantitative ultrasound (QUS) technique, confirmed at the lumbar spine and hip by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Both patients and controls were divided according to age (less or more than 65 years) and disease severity (T-score levels and presence of fractures). Serum IL-31 levels were measured by ELISA technique. Osteoporotic patients exhibited elevated levels of serum IL-31 compared with healthy controls (43.12 ± 6.97 vs 29.58 ± 6.09 pg/ml; p   -3) compared to severe (T-score < -3) osteoporosis (59.17 ± 9.22 vs 37.91 ± 10.52), neither between fractured and unfractured osteoporotic women (33.75 ± 9.16 vs 51.25 ± 8.9). We showed for the first time an increase of IL-31 serum levels in postmenopausal women with decreased BMD. Although they did not reflect the severity of osteoporosis and/or the presence of fractures, they clearly correlated with age, as reflected by the higher levels of this cytokine in aged patients.

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Increased levels of interleukin 31 (IL-31) in osteoporosis

Objective. The aim of this review is to analyze preclinical and clinical studies investigating the anxiety effects of Citrus aurantium or Citrus sinensis essential oils (EOs). Design. The bibliographic research was made on the major scientific databases. Analysis included only articles written in English and published on peer-reviewed scientific journals describing preclinical experiments and clinical trials carried out to investigate the antianxiety effects of Citrus aurantium or Citrus sinensis EOs on anxiety disorders. Clinical studies reporting the antianxiety effects of products containing Citrus aurantium or Citrus sinensis EOs in combination with other active substances, including medicinal plants, were excluded. Nine clinical studies fulfilled the criteria adopted for analysis. Results. Data show that Citrus aurantium or Citrus sinensis EOs produce anxiolytic effects both in preclinical experiments and in different clinical conditions. Citrus aurantium EO aromatherapy reduced anxiety level in the great part of stress conditions studied (subjects affected by chronic myeloid leukemia and preoperative patients) except for a sample of patients subjected to colonoscopy. Exposition to Citrus sinensis EO in clinical studies shows to be positive in reducing anxiety level in patients waiting for dental treatment as well as in healthy volunteers submitted to an anxiogenic situation. Conclusions. Overview of clinical trials conducted with Citrus aurantium or Citrus sinensis on people with anxiety showed that inhalation or oral administration of Citrus aurantium and inhalation of Citrus sinensis can exert beneficial effects on anxiety; however, because of incomplete accuracy in the reporting of methodology, further more complete clinical studies are warranted.

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Carmen Mannucci

Papers

Citrus bergamia essential oil: from basic research to clinical application

Neurological Aspects of Medical Use of Cannabidiol.

Clinical Pharmacology of Citrus bergamia: A Systematic Review

Increased levels of interleukin 31 (IL-31) in osteoporosis

Clinical Pharmacology of Citrus aurantium and Citrus sinensis for the Treatment of Anxiety