Publisher Summary The chapter outlines a general model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, the Hierarchical model. This model serves two objectives. First, the model provides a framework to organize the literature on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as well as to identify the psychological mechanisms underlying motivational changes. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation represents a substantial portion of people's experiences when involved in activities. Furthermore, conceptual and methodological advances are presented supporting a multidimensional approach to the study of motivational phenomena. Such an approach has been found useful—for instance, for distinguishing nonintrinsic but internalized motivational forces that promote adaptive consequences such as persisting at difficult tasks from other internalized forces that compromise adaptive adjustment. A second objective of the hierarchical model is to lead to novel and testable hypotheses. Moreover, other aspects of the model also appear as prime candidates for future research. Such a model serves to integrate the literature and points toward new research. It is within such a contextually situated perspective that the model shows its greatest promise of usefulness.

Toward A Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

The present study was designed to assess selected psychometric properties of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) (Ryan, 1982), a multidimensional measure of subjects' experience with regard to experimental tasks. Subjects (N = 116) competed in a basketball free-throw shooting game, following which they completed the IMI. The LISREL VI computer program was employed to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis to assess the tenability of a five factor hierarchical model representing four first-order factors or dimensions and a second-order general factor representing intrinsic motivation. Indices of model acceptability tentatively suggest that the sport data adequately fit the hypothesized five factor hierarchical model. Alternative models were tested but did not result in significant improvements in the goodness-of-fit indices, suggesting the proposed model to be the most accurate of the models tested. Coefficient alphas for the four dimensions and the overall scale indicated adequate reliabilit...

Psychometric Properties of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory in a Competitive Sport Setting: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach–athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes' motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (D...

http://groups.jyu.fi/sporticus/lahteet/LAHDE_4.pdf

The coach–athlete relationship: a motivational model

A meta-analysis of 41 studies examined the effect of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes in a variety of settings with both child and adult samples. Results indicated that providing choice enhanced intrinsic motivation, effort, task performance, and perceived competence, among other outcomes. Moderator tests revealed the effect of choice on intrinsic motivation was stronger (a) for instructionally irrelevant choices compared to choices made between activities, versions of a task, rewards, and instructionally relevant options, (b) when 2 to 4 successive choices were given, (c) when rewards were not given after the choice manipulation, (d) when participants given choice were compared to the most controlling forms of control groups, (e) for children compared to adults, (f) for designs that yoked choice and control conditions compared to matched designs in which choice was reduced or designs in which nonyoked, nonmatched controls were used, and (g) when the experiment was conducted in a laboratory embedded in a natural setting. Implications for future research and applications to real-world settings are discussed.

The Effects of Choice on Intrinsic Motivation and Related Outcomes : A Meta-Analysis of Research Findings

Obese children 8-12 years old from 61 families were randomized to treatment groups that targeted increased exercise, decreased sedentary behaviors, or both (combined group) to test the influence of reinforcing children to be more active or less sedentary on child weight change. Significant decreases in percentage overweight were observed after 4 months between the sedentary and the exercise groups (-19.9 vs. -13.2). At 1 year, the sedentary group had a greater decrease in percentage overweight than did the combined and the exercise groups (-18.7 vs. -10.3 and -8.7) and greater decrease in percentage of body fat (-4.7 vs. -1.3). All groups improved fitness during treatment and follow-up. Children in the sedentary group increased their liking for high-intensity activity and reported lower caloric intake than did children in the exercise group. These results support the goal of reducing time spent in sedentary activities to improve weight loss.

Effects of decreasing sedentary behavior and increasing activity on weight change in obese children.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of perceived activity choice upon the frequency of exercise behavior of adult women. Thirty-six recent enrollees in a private health club were recruited for involvement in a new exercise program. At an initial organizational meeting, subjects ranked their preferences for different activities and completed a number of self-report inventories. Subjects were paired on the basis of their activity preferences so as to establish two matched groups of subjects. One member of each pair was then randomly assigned to a choice condition while the other was assigned to a no choice control condition. Perceived choice was manipulated at the time of an individual's next visit to the club, with subjects in the choice group being led to believe that their initial activity selections were the basis for their programs whereas subjects in the control group were informed that they had been assigned a standardized exercise program by the club's instructresses. The overall attendance of the choice group was better than that of the control group. Across both groups there was a significant decline in attendance over the 6-week period but the decrement was significantly greater in the control group. At the conclusion of the 6-week period, subjects in the choice condition expressed a greater intention to continue exercising at the club than did subjects in the control condition.

The Effects of Perceived Activity Choice upon Frequency of Exercise Behavior

Female members of an adult physical fitness club, who had been inactive for a period of at least one month, were assigned to one of four treatment groups. A control group received no treatment while the other three groups underwent different treatments during a telephone interview. A regular call-up group received a standard club telephone interview advocating greater participation in the club's activities; a decision-balance-sheet group completed a list of anticipated gains and losses for attending the club's activities; a positive-outcomes-only group (i.e., self-persuasion condition) completed a list of anticipated gains for attending the club's activities. Attendance rates for both the decision balance-sheet group and the self-persuasion group were better than for the control group. Also, attendance for the self-persuasion group was significantly better than for the regular club call-up group, Results are discussed in terms of self-persuasion and emotional inoculation processes with respect to behavioral change and behavioral maintenance.

Carol E. Thompson

Papers

The Effects of Perceived Activity Choice upon Frequency of Exercise Behavior

Motivating People to be Physically Active: Self‐Persuasion vs. Balanced Decision Making1