We begin by considering how the recent phenomenon of English as a Lingua Franca (henceforth ELF) fits in with the older notion of lingua francas in general as well as with older versions of ELF. We then explore the beginnings of ELF in its modern manifestation, including the earliest ELF research, and tackle the thorny issue of defining ELF. After discussing the main locations and domains in which ELF research has been carried out to date, we move on to examining research into three linguistic levels, lexicogrammar, phonology and pragmatics, concluding with a discussion of very recent findings revealing ELF's linguistic fluidity. Next, we discuss research into two domains where ELF has proved especially prevalent: business English and academic English. This is followed by a consideration of ELF as a globalized and globalizing practice. We end the article by exploring the implications of ELF research for ELF-oriented English teaching and the role that attitudes are likely to play in this. We conclude that while the relaxed attitudes towards ELF of younger people are promising, strong resistance is still felt by many others, and that the major challenge remains in convincing the examination boards that they should take account of ELF.

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Review of developments in research into English as a lingua franca

By extending the notion of metroethnicity, this paper proposes the notion of metrolingualism, creative linguistic practices across borders of culture, history and politics. Metrolingualism gives us a way to move beyond current terms such as ‘multilingualism’ and ‘multiculturalism’. It is a product of modern and often urban interaction, describing the ways in which people of different and mixed backgrounds use, play with and negotiate identities through language. The focus is not so much on language systems as on languages as emergent from contexts of interaction. Looking at data from workplaces where metrolingual language use is common, we show how the use of both fixed and fluid linguistic and cultural identities is part of the process of language use. The notion of metrolingualism gives us ways of moving beyond common frameworks of language, providing insights into contemporary, urban language practices, and accommodating both fixity and fluidity in its approach to language use.

Metrolingualism: fixity, fluidity and language in flux

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0261444800006583

World Englishes: approaches, issues and resources

Although the majority of English language teachers worldwide are non-native English speakers, no research was conducted on these teachers until recently. After the pioneering work of Robert Phillipson in 1992 and Peter Medgyes in 1994, nearly a decade had to elapse for more research to emerge on the issues relating to non-native English teachers. The publication in 1999 of George Braine's book Nonnative educators in English language teaching appears to have encouraged a number of graduate students and scholars to research this issue, with topics ranging from teachers' perceptions of their own identity to students' views and aspects of teacher education. This article compiles, classifies, and examines research conducted in the last two decades on this topic, placing a special emphasis on World Englishes concerns, methods of investigation, and areas in need of further attention.

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Non-native English-speaking English language teachers: History and research

For some 30 years, intelligibility has been recognized as an appropriate goal for pronunciation instruction, yet remarkably little is known about the factors that make a language learner's speech intelligible. Studies have traced correlations between features of nonnative speech and native speakers' intelligibility judgements. They have tended to regard prosody as a global phenomenon and to view intelligibility as primarily a quality of the speaker. The present article focuses on a single prosodic element, lexical stress, and shifts the focus of study to the listener. It draws on findings in psycholinguistics that have rarely been applied to second language (L2) contexts. Groups of listeners were asked to transcribe recorded material in which the variables of lexical stress and vowel quality were manipulated. Recognizing the extent to which English is employed in international contexts, the study contrasted the effect of the variables on native listeners (NLs) with their effect on nonnative listeners (NNLs). NLs and NNLs were found to respond in remarkably similar ways to the problems posed by stress misallocation. For both groups, the extent to which intelligibility was compromised depended greatly on the direction in which stress was shifted and whether changes in vowel quality were involved.

Intelligibility and the Listener: The Role of Lexical Stress

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The Handbook of World Englishes

This is a summary of the state-of-the-art research in international intelligibility with emphasis on English. It also suggests some directions for future research. It is argued that in future research it would be desirable to make distinctions between three key concepts: intelligibility, comprehensibility and interpretability. The selected bibliography of 163 items has been assembled to give the reader an indication of how widespread this literature is, and at the same time to indicate its limitations. The sources searched include publications across various disciplines. This indicates that intelligibility can be approached from a variety of points of view and interests. Since intelligibility depends upon so many factors of different types involved in a given speech event, it is difficult to find ways of integrating approaches and parameters. That is a challenge for future research.

International intelligibility of English: directions and resources

A comprehensive treatment of the spread, acculturation, functions, and evolution of English in Asia, this book discusses the issues resulting from the introduction of English in culturally different contexts and the two-way interaction of English and local languages in Asia. It is useful for those interested in English studies and world Englishes.

World Englishes in Asian Contexts

World Englishes and Issues of Intelligibility

Notions of ‘the Good’ in English-language usage are informed by teachers’ experience and by authoritative sources such as rhetoric handbooks and reference grammars. In recent decades, new ways of evaluating language interpretation and use have been explored and tested; such recent conceptions of what it means to be intelligible may be seen as ‘better’ in that they accord more closely with the observable data and situations around us. In particular, the choice of overall model of English that is presented to students and by which their English is evaluated ought to be considered in pragmatic rather than a priori terms.

Cecil L. Nelson

Papers

The Handbook of World Englishes

International intelligibility of English: directions and resources

World Englishes in Asian Contexts

World Englishes and Issues of Intelligibility

Intelligibility and world Englishes in the classroom