We present evidence from a 5-year longitudinal study for the prospective associations between loneliness and depressive symptoms in a population-based, ethnically diverse sample of 229 men and women who were 50-68 years old at study onset. Cross-lagged panel models were used in which the criterion variables were loneliness and depressive symptoms, considered simultaneously. We used variations on this model to evaluate the possible effects of gender, ethnicity, education, physical functioning, medications, social network size, neuroticism, stressful life events, perceived stress, and social support on the observed associations between loneliness and depressive symptoms. Cross-lagged analyses indicated that loneliness predicted subsequent changes in depressive symptomatology, but not vice versa, and that this temporal association was not attributable to demographic variables, objective social isolation, dispositional negativity, stress, or social support. The importance of distinguishing between loneliness and depressive symptoms and the implications for loneliness and depressive symptomatology in older adults are discussed.

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Perceived social isolation makes me sad: 5-year cross-lagged analyses of loneliness and depressive symptomatology in the Chicago Health, Aging, and Social Relations Study.

The association between religiousness and depressive symptoms was examined with meta-analytic methods across 147 independent investigations (N 98,975). Across all studies, the correlation between religiousness and depressive symptoms was –.096, indicating that greater religiousness is mildly associated with fewer symptoms. The results were not moderated by gender, age, or ethnicity, but the religiousness– depression association was stronger in studies involving people who were undergoing stress due to recent life events. The results were also moderated by the type of measure of religiousness used in the study, with extrinsic religious orientation and negative religious coping (e.g., avoiding difficulties through religious activities, blaming God for difficulties) associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms, the opposite direction of the overall findings.

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Religiousness and depression: evidence for a main effect and the moderating influence of stressful life events.

We describe experimental vignette methodology (EVM) as a way to address the dilemma of conducting experimental research that results in high levels of confidence regarding internal validity but is challenged by threats to external validity versus conducting nonexperimental research that usually maximizes external validity but whose conclusions are ambiguous regarding causal relationships. EVM studies consist of presenting participants with carefully constructed and realistic scenarios to assess dependent variables including intentions, attitudes, and behaviors, thereby enhancing experimental realism and also allowing researchers to manipulate and control independent variables. We describe two major types of EVM aimed at assessing explicit (i.e., paper people studies) and implicit (i.e., policy capturing and conjoint analysis) processes and outcomes. We offer best practice recommendations regarding the design and implementation of EVM studies based on a multidisciplinary literature review, discuss substant...

Best Practice Recommendations for Designing and Implementing Experimental Vignette Methodology Studies

Different perspectives of strategic decision-making and outcomes have been advanced in the literature. Among those are the rational normative, external control, and strategic choice models. The current research examined hypothesized effects of factors associated with these three perspectives on strategic acquisition decisions. Strong support was found for the rational/analytical normative choice perspective with objective criteria explaining the greatest amount of total explained variance in evaluation of target firms. However, industry and executive characteristics also produced main effects on target firm evaluations. Furthermore, the strategic decision models were found to vary by industry and executive characteristics of age, educational degree type, amount and type of work experience, and level (CEO and below). The results suggest that strategic decision models are quite complex with significant implications for future research and for strategic decision-making.

Strategic decision models: Integrating different perspectives

The relative weight of predictor variables in multiple regression is difficult to determine because of non-zero predictor intercorrelations. Relative weight (also called relative importance by some researchers) is defined here as the proportionate contribution each predictor makes to R2, considering both its unique contribution and its contribution when combined with other variables. Although there are no unambiguous measures of relative weight when variables are correlated, some measures have been shown to provide meaningful results (Budescu, 1993; Lindeman, Merenda, & Gold, 1980). These measures are very difficult to implement, however, when the number of predictors is greater than about five. A method is proposed that is computationally efficient with any number of predictors, and is shown to produce results that are very similar to those produced by more complex methods. Recommendations are made for when this procedure may be applied and in what situations it is not appropriate.

A Heuristic Method for Estimating the Relative Weight of Predictor Variables in Multiple Regression.

The difficulties faced by U.S. workers trying to balance excessive work and life/family demands have been the subject of significant discussion in corporate America. Failure to achieve balance can lead to a variety of serious negative consequences for both individuals and organizations, including higher stress levels, increased absenteeism, and lower productivity.

Compelling Evidence of the Need for Corporate Work/Life Balance Initiatives: Results from a National Survey of Stressful Life-Events.

The widely used and cited Social Readjustment Rating Scale developed by Holmes and Rahe (1967) was comprehensively revised and updated. The new instrument, containing 51 major life events, was administered to a national sample of 5000. Respondents were asked to rate the stressfulness of each life event on a 1–100 scale. Completed surveys were returned by 3122 individuals (62.4%). Responses were analyzed using repeated measures MANOVA and profile analysis. Major results included: (a) statistically and practically significant differences in mean ratings for the 51 life events; (b) five overlapping themes in the top 20 rated life events—death and dying, healthcare, crime and the criminal justice system, financial/economic issues, and family-related issues; and (c) an amazing level of agreement concerning perceived life event stressfulness, regardless of gender, age, or income level.

Stressful Life Events: A Revision and Update of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale

This paper reviews the research dealing with the use of policy capturing as a technique to understand and improve the performance appraisal process. Major methodological problems are emphasized, along with directions for future research. A number of practical implications and applications are discussed.

Policy Capturing as an Approach to Understanding and Improving Performance Appraisal: A Review of the Literature.

The revised 51-event Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) was administered to a representative national sample of 5,000 in order to construct and interpret norms for overall scale scores and life-event frequencies. Directions asked for the frequency of each life-event during the previous 12 months. Life-event frequencies for each subject were multiplied by previously determined stressfulness ratings to produce an overall scale score. Norms for overall scale scores and life-event frequencies were calculated. A total of 3,399 completed surveys were returned (68%). The distribution of overall scale scores had a mean of 278, standard deviation of 422, and marked positive skewness of 4.12. Five of the top 10 most frequently occurring life-events were directly related to work. The normative information concerning overall scores on the revised Social Readjustment Rating Scale can be invaluable in understanding and interpreting individual scores, as well as diagnosing or identifying at-risk individuals with high scores who would likely benefit from stress management interventions.

National Norms and Life-Event Frequencies for the Revised Social Readjustment Rating Scale

The quality scholars have indicated that primarily the employees build quality into an organization's goods and services. Hence, the quality of products and services depend heavily on employee commitment, participation, involvement, morale, motivation, compensation, performance, job satisfaction etc. We hypothesized that some motivational theories, when properly deployed cause quality initiatives to be successful, while others do not. In our survey study, we tested, Content Theory, Expectancy Theory, Behavior Modification Theory, Goal Setting Theory, Equity Theory, and Job Design Theory. We found evidence that Goal Setting Theory and Expectancy Theory, if properly deployed, are most likely to bring success to quality initiatives. Introduction In the United States, since the late 70s, many companies have undertaken quality initiatives. Deming, Juran, Crosby and other quality gurus have led the effort in making quality a hot and exciting concept in corporate America. Depending on the focus and quality perspective that the management thought was appropriate, there were many varieties of quality programs available for organizations to adopt. In the 80s organizations adopted quality initiatives with intense fervor in one form or other. While many organizations spent time and resources without gaining significant results, others were able to harness the benefits of total quality initiatives (TQI). Over this period of time, quality initiatives has been deemed to be extremely beneficial by U.S. organizations. In fact the federal and several state governments have instituted annual quality awards for organizations in many categories. While the criteria for these awards are somewhat different, most of the state awards use the Department of Commerce's Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award (MBNQA) as a model. Quality practitioners have consistently asserted that TQI should focus on total quality in the entire organization, and that it is not a program or project but a philosophy. After going through the experience of implementing TQI, quality champions of many organizations have pointed out that adopting total quality principles is a time consuming (five to seven years) and arduous process. One of the most difficult obstacles has been achieving total commitment from employees to quality initiatives. Masters (1996) discusses 15 different barriers in achieving TQM success. Zietz et al. (1997) discuss several of those barriers and focus on two barriers: (1) lack of proper fit between the culture of the workforce including inconsistency between the culture of the workforce and the demands of a formal TQM program; and (2) poor management of the variables critical to success. Arguing that the professional literature lacks good diagnostic questionnaires to measure and diagnose these barriers, Zietz et al. (1997) provide a survey for organizations to assess and develop a TQM ready culture. Discussing the TQM culture requirements, Thompson (1998) identifies seven paradoxes of TQM. Categorizing them into three quality focus points as creating the culture of the work environment, building a responsive team environment, and reinforcing a performance centered environment, he suggests that recognizing these paradoxes is essential for TQM leaders in becoming sensitive to their style in building a truly cooperative organization. One of the most important categories in MBNQA is Human Resource Development and Management, where the ability of management to motivate, involve, and empower employees is evaluated. All quality gurus have pointed out the attitudinal change that is needed in implementing effective quality initiative. Further, quality experts have identified methods to be used to accomplish it and the change management that are required as the critical component. The criteria for MBNQA, the highest quality award bestowed on a U.S. organization by the Department of Commerce and National Institute of Standards and Technology, allocate 140 of its total 1000 points to the category of Human Resources (HR) Development and Management. …

Charles J. Hobson

Papers

Compelling Evidence of the Need for Corporate Work/Life Balance Initiatives: Results from a National Survey of Stressful Life-Events.

Stressful Life Events: A Revision and Update of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale

Policy Capturing as an Approach to Understanding and Improving Performance Appraisal: A Review of the Literature.

National Norms and Life-Event Frequencies for the Revised Social Readjustment Rating Scale

Motivational Theories and Successful Total Quality Initiatives