Let us consider, then, some general conclusions that may be drawn from the findings reported in this study. The data allow us to question the view stated by Ortega, Florey, and others that large numbers of average scientists contribute substantially to the advance of science through their research. It seems, rather, that a relatively small number of physicists produce work that becomes the base for future discoveries in physics. We have found that even papers of relatively minor significance have used to a disproportionate degree the work of the eminent scientists. Although the conclusions of this paper may be reasonably clear, the implications of these data for the structure of scientific activity, at least in physics, need careful consideration.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/178/4059/368.full.pdf

The Ortega Hypothesis: Citation analysis suggests that only a few scientists contribute to scientific progress.

In the last decade, as semiconductor industry was approaching the end of the exponential Moore’s roadmap for device downscaling, the necessity of finding new candidate materials has forced many research groups to explore many different types of non-conventional materials. Among them, graphene, CNTs and organic conductors are the most successful alternatives. Finding a material with metallic properties combined with field effect characteristics on nanoscale level has been always a dream to continue the ever-shrinking road of the nanoelectronics. Due to its fantastic features such as high mobility, optical transparency, room temperature quantum Hall effect, mechanical stiffness, etc. the atomically thin carbon layer, graphene, has attracted the industry’s attention not only in the micro-, nano-, and opto-electronics but also in biotechnology. This paper reviews the basics and previous works on graphene technology and its developments. Compatibility of this material with Si processing technology is its crucial characteristic for mass production. This study also reviews the physical and electrical properties of graphene as a building block for other carbon allotropes. Different growth methods and a wide range of graphene’s applications will be discussed and compared. A brief comparison on the performance result of different types of devices has also been presented. Until now, the main focus of research has been on the background physics and its application in electronic devices. But, according to the recent works on its applications in photonics and optoelectronics, where it benefits from the combination of its unique optical and electronic properties, even without a bandgap, this material enables ultrawide-band tunability. Here in this article we review different applications and graphene’s advantages and drawbacks will be mentioned to conclude at the end.

Graphene synthesis, characterization and its applications in nanophotonics, nanoelectronics, and nanosensing

(1978). Establishing Academic Program Priorities. The Journal of Higher Education: Vol. 49, No. 5, pp. 472-488.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/1980511.pdf

Establishing Academic Program Priorities

"This rich array of essays shows how the lens of history can clarify contemporary health-policy dilemmas and enable the reader to see ahead more clearly." --Harvey V. Fineberg, President, Institute of Medicine "A refreshing antidote for those finding it difficult to envision a better future for health care in America...This excellent book helps us all to better understand the subtle relationship among values, institutions, economics, and medicine that shapes our health system." --Stuart M. Butler, Vice President for Domestic Policy, The Heritage Foundation "An important book for those wrestling with the appropriate role of markets in U.S. health policy." --Karen Davis, President, The Commonwealth Fund In this book, seventeen leading scholars make the case for the usefulness of history in evaluating and formulating health policy today. In looking at issues as varied as the consumer economy and the plight of the uninsured, the contributors uncover the ways we think about technology, the role of government, and contemporary medicine. They show how historical perspectives can help policy makers avoid the pitfalls of partisan, outdated, or merely fashionable approaches, as well as how knowledge of previous systems can offer alternatives when policy directions seem unclear. Rosemary A. Stevens is DeWitt Wallace Distinguished Scholar in social medicine and public policy at Weill Cornell Medical College and professor emerita of the history and sociology of science at the University of Pennsylvania. Charles E. Rosenberg is a professor of the history of science and Ernest E. Monrad Professor in the social sciences at Harvard University. Lawton R. Burns is the James Joo-Jin Kim Professor of Health Care Systems at the University of Pennsylvania. A volume in the Critical Issues in Health and Medicine series, edited by Rima D. Apple and Janet Golden

History and Health Policy in the United States: Putting the Past Back In

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/175/4024/835.4.full.pdf

Environmental Quality Standards

Even if agreement on "Solutions" is reached, the processes of adjustment will be difficult. More stringent admission standards, quotas, reduced financial support, incentives, or other means of controlling the number of doctorates will challenge established values, frustrate many students and many professors, exacerbate tensions among established and emerging institutions, aggravate the uneasy relationships between universities and government, complicate faculty-administration problems, and accentuate differences between older and younger faculty members. Some academicians will no doubt be inclined to the view that difficulties in the job market for young doctorates created by a laissez-faire approach are moderate compared with the difficulties that will be generated by efforts to adjust supply and demand. We are of the opinion that these problems must be faced, and that the longrange imbalance, inequities, and strains arising from ignoring the problem will far outweigh the stresses generated by efforts to cope with it.

The Future Market for Ph.D.'s

The Future Market for Ph.D.'s.

Federal Support of Research Careers: Government joins universities to increase the number of career appointments in research

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/124/3233/1185.full.pdf

Medical research in perspective.

make it far and away the largest single user of scientific talent in the country and the problems encountered by the Federal Government as an employer of scientific personnel. The impact that the activities of the Federal Government will have on the supply of and demand for scientific personnel during the next year or so will depend fundamentally upon major policy decisions affecting the nature and volume of Federal research and development. I should like, therefore, to spend a few moments outlining the magnitude of the Federal program and the steps that have been or will be taken to review the entire research

Charles V. Kidd

Papers

The Future Market for Ph.D.'s

The Future Market for Ph.D.'s.

Federal Support of Research Careers: Government joins universities to increase the number of career appointments in research

Medical research in perspective.

The Federal Government and the Shortage of Scientific Personnel