The purpose of this study is to provide conceptual order and a tool for the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and computer conferencing in supporting an educational experience. Central to the study introduced here is a model of community inquiry that constitutes three elements essential to an educational transaction—cognitive presence, social presence, and teaching presence. Indicators (key words/phrases) for each of the three elements emerged from the analysis of computer-conferencing transcripts. The indicators described represent a template or tool for researchers to analyze written transcripts, as well as a guide to educators for the optimal use of computer conferencing as a medium to facilitate an educational transaction. This research would suggest that computer conferencing has considerable potential to create a community of inquiry for educational purposes.

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Critical Inquiry in a Text-Based Environment: Computer Conferencing in Higher Education

A systematic search of the research literature from 1996 through July 2008 identified more than a thousand empirical studies of online learning. Analysts screened these studies to find those that (a) contrasted an online to a face-to-face condition, (b) measured student learning outcomes, (c) used a rigorous research design, and (d) provided adequate information to calculate an effect size. As a result of this screening, 51 independent effects were identified that could be subjected to meta-analysis. The meta-analysis found that, on average, students in online learning conditions performed better than those receiving face-to-face instruction. The difference between student outcomes for online and face-to-face classes—measured as the difference between treatment and control means, divided by the pooled standard deviation—was larger in those studies contrasting conditions that blended elements of online and face-to-face instruction with conditions taught entirely face-to-face. Analysts noted that these blended conditions often included additional learning time and instructional elements not received by students in control conditions. This finding suggests that the positive effects associated with blended learning should not be attributed to the media, per se. An unexpected finding was the small number of rigorous published studies contrasting online and face-to-face learning conditions for K–12 students. In light of this small corpus, caution is required in generalizing to the K–12 population because the results are derived for the most part from studies in other settings (e.g., medical training, higher education).

Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies

This article describes a practical approach to judging the nature and quality of critical discourse in a computer conference. A model of a critical community of inquiry frames the research. A core concept in defining a community of inquiry is cognitive presence. In turn, the practical inquiry model operationalizes cognitive presence for the purpose of developing a tool to assess critical discourse and reflection. The authors present encouraging empirical findings related to an attempt to create an efficient and reliable instrument to assess the nature and quality of critical discourse and thinking in a text‐based educational context. Finally, the authors suggest that cognitive presence (i.e., critical, practical inquiry) can be created and supported in a computer‐conference environment with appropriate teaching and social presence.

https://cde.athabascau.ca/coi_site/documents/Garrison_Anderson_Archer_CogPres_Final.pdf

Critical thinking, cognitive presence, and computer conferencing in distance education

Based on the GlobalEd inter‐university computer conference, this study examined how effective “social presence” is as a predictor of overall learner satisfaction in a text‐based medium. The stepwise regression analysis converged on a three‐predictor model revealing that social presence (the degree to which a person is perceived as “real” in mediated communication), student perception of having equal opportunity to participate, and technical skills accounted for about 68% of the explained variance. Social presence alone contributed about 60% of this variance, suggesting that it may be a very strong predictor of satisfaction. Reliability data on the social presence scale is provided. The results also indicated that participants who felt a higher sense of social presence enhanced their socio‐emotional experience by using emoticons to express missing nonverbal cues in written form. These findings have implications for designing academic computer conferences where equal attention must be paid to desig...

Social presence as a predictor of satisfaction within a computer‐mediated conferencing environment

Evaluating Model Fit

Integrating telecommunication systems to reach distance learners

This study evaluates the Oklahoma Televised Instruction System, through an analysis of the student support services to include the resources available to the learner, the communications process characterized by the coordination services provided among the on-campus and distance sites, and the communication process characterized by the mechanical and electronic transfer of information. The study also compares the attitudes and performance of the participating on-campus and distance students. According to Garrison and Baynton (1987), the learner support system comprises both resources the learner can access in order to carry out the learning process and resources which relate to the mediation of the communication process. The resources of the learning process apply to both distance and on-campus students and include the availability of and access to courses, teachers or facilitators, learning materials, library facilities, media equipment and community experts. Among these resources 'The role of the teacher/facilitator is of primary importance in the issue of support' (p. 7). The need for resources associated with the mediation process results from the geographic distance between the teacher and the learner, and requires some type of mechanical or electronic transfer of information through telecommunications or mail to carry out the two-way communication in the learning process. This study analyzes the learner support system in a state-wide distance education system from the perspective of the distance learner. As such, the study examines the attitudes of distance students in the Oklahoma Televised Instruction System toward the following: a) the resources available to the learner which are directly related to learning including availability of courses, access to learning materials, and opportunities for interaction among teachers and students; b) the recourses available to the learner which are indirectly related to learning and include counseling, advisement and job placement services; c) the communication process characterized by the co-ordination services provided among the sending an communication process relating to the mechanical and electronic transfer of information. Finally, the study compares the attitudes and performance of the participating on-campus and distance students toward the teaching-learning experience. The Oklahoma Televised instruction System (TIS) was established by the Oklahoma State Regents of Higher Education in 1970 in response to legislative mandate. This system, which links Oklahoma's public and private colleges and universities, junior colleges, and technical institutions has become an integral part of the State System of Higher Education.

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Learner support: The critical link in distance education

This paper critically reflects upon the questions asked and the models and methods employed to evaluate online learning in several studies. These online studies range from setting up online networks for social interaction and facilitating collaborative learning experiences among graduate students in several universities, to moderating worldwide online ' professional development activities. The paper examines the methodologies . used to answer the following evaluation research questions: (1) How can we describe online participation, interaction patterns, and group dynamics? (2) Were students satisfied with their online learning experience? (3) Did participants learn? and (4) Was knowledge constructed? It is concluded that the adoption of a single technique for analyzing the quality of the learning experience in online learning networks has not yielded satisfactory answers, and a mixed methodology approach is recommended to study the complex nature of online learning networks. (Contains 11 references.) (MES) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. EVALUATING ONLINE LEARNING: MODELS AND METHODS Charlotte N. Gunawardena, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Organizational Learning and Instructional Technology Program, College ofEducation, University ofNew Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, U.S.A. e-mail: lani@unm.edu Constance Lowe, M. A. New Mexico Department ofHealth, Santa Fe New Mexico, U.S.A. e-mail:  Kayleigh Carabajal, M. A. Technical Vocational Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico, U.S.A. e-mail:  PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

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Evaluating online learning: models and methods

The interaction of adult learning styles and the media, methods of instruction, and group functioning in a distance learning class using audiographics and computer-mediated communication was studied and compared with similar interaction in non-equivalent traditional classes. One graduate class in theory and practice of distance education, taught at a distafice with 15 students, and 3 traditional on-campus classes were selected. The interaction of learning style and media, methods of instruction, group functioning, and support was determined by administering a questionnaire developed for the study and subjecting results to an . analysis of variance. The major finding is that learning styles do not impact how students interact with media and methods of instruction, but do affect satisfaction with other learners. Class type impacts student satisfaction with media, methods, group satisfaction, goal setting, and group climate. Results of this study cannot be generalized because of the small sample in the distance class. (SLD) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. *********************************************************************** U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Othce of Educational Research and irnpro.emz.it EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC1 This document has been reproduced as received from tne person or organization originating a C Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction Quality Points of view or opinions statno in MIS clOCu. went do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy International Council of Distance Education 16th World Conference Bangkok, Thailand November 8-13, 1992 Cr.)

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Impact of Learning Styles on Instructional Design for Distance Education.

The purpose of this paper is threefold: (1) to discuss issues related to the design of interaction on the World Wide Web using models of interaction developed for distance education; (2) to examine several techniques for the analysis of interactions and the quality of the learning experience in a computer-mediated group conference; and (3) to propose a model for analyzing the social construction of knowledge in such a group conference. The paper provides guidelines for both designers and evaluators of Web-based instruction. The definition of interaction in a computer mediated communication (CMC) environment is examined since definitions of interaction for interpersonal communication used by communication researchers to study face-to-face dialogue do not transfer well to the CMC context. Three types of interaction are discussed: learner-content, learner-instructor, and learner-learner. The strengths and shortcomings of the interaction analysis techniques that have been developed are pointed out, and a model for analyzing the quality of CMC interactions and learning experiences is proposed. The application of this model for analyzing interaction is briefly discussed. (Contains 17 references.) (MES) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. 1 BEST COPYAVAILABLE THE CHALLENGE OF DESIGNING AND EVALUATING 'INTERACTION' IN WEB-BASED DISTANCE EDUCATION Charlotte Gunawardena University of New Mexico lani@unm.edu

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Charlotte Nirmalani Gunawardena

Papers

Integrating telecommunication systems to reach distance learners

Learner support: The critical link in distance education

Evaluating online learning: models and methods

Impact of Learning Styles on Instructional Design for Distance Education.

The Challenge of Designing and Evaluating "Interaction" in Web-Based Distance Education.