‘Input–Output economics is that rara avis in economics, a genuinely new and origznal idea. It was not without precursors and Leontief has always been at least adequately generous in acknowleding them…. The fundamental discovery that distinguished Leon- tiefs work from that of all his predecessors is that it was practical to calculate the input–output coefficients from recorded data, to perform the necessary algebraic manipu- lations, and to use the results to answer a wide variety of practical economic questions’ (Dorfman, 1973; pp. 430–31).

Input–Output Analysis: The First Fifty Years

What are appropriate strategies for protecting the environment in developing countries that also seek to promote growth and reduce poverty? This article reviews the literature on cost-effective intervention, comparing regulatory and fiscal instruments that can be attuned to the purpose of reducing pollution. The authors look at what happens when developing country ingredients are introduced into the standard policy problem, and show how indirect instruments can be effective when monitoring and enforcement are costly. They discuss distributive concerns for two reasons: the effect on the poor may need particular consideration for equity reasons, and the effect on groups with vested interests can determine whether reforms are likely to stand or fall.

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Policy instruments for pollution control in developing countries

Threats and opportunities faced by private businesses in China

Publisher Summary The achievement of an efficient balance between the economic system and the environment is just one of many societal objectives. How environmental policy affects these other objectives is important because these impacts may serve to constrain the set of politically feasible policies, may recommend some approaches over others or may provide guidance as to the most appropriate timing of policy implementation. Two effects of environmental policy have been discussed in the chapter: distributional effects and macroeconomic effects. The former concerns how the costs and benefits of environmental policy are distributed among socioeconomic groups and among geographic regions; the latter concerns the impact of environmental policy on important national aggregates such as inflation, unemployment, and productivity. The chapter examines the theoretical models that serve to identify the channels of influence, the data which provide the raw material for the estimates and the methods used to quantify the impacts. The objective is to convey a sense of the magnitude of the impacts along with an appreciation for the reliability of these estimates for policy purposes. Finally, the chapter discusses the policies that have triggered the effects being estimated.

Chapter 9 Distributional and macroeconomic aspects of environmental policy

This paper presents the design of cost effective interventions to protect the environment from excessive pollution in developing countries. The concept of intervention is motivated by the typical explanation for environmental problems in economic theory--external effects. The aim of the paper is to review the relevant theoretical and empirical economic literature in order: (a) to distill the principal lessons and evaluate general rules of thumb; and (b) to identify gaps that need to be filled in order to make them more accessible and relevant to developing countries. The paper defines broadly the range of policy instruments that can be used to address pollution problems in developing countries. It includes instruments that have traditionally been in the realm of public finance, such as taxes, prices and subsidies. But it also covers regulations and other instruments designed to affect the amount of pollution or to mitigate its damage. To limit the scope of this paper, the authors treat pollution control policies, but not policies to address other environmental problems, such as soil erosion, deforestation, desertification or other natural resource problems. Many of the principles presented, however, broadly relate to the problem of correcting for external effects, and can be applied to these other problems as well. It also focuses on domestic problems and does not deal explicitly with trans-national or global pollution externalities.

Choosing policy instruments for pollution control : a review

Air pollution control costs and consumption pattern effects A regional analysis

The Chinese distribution system is markedly different from its American equivalent. The bulk of the nation's products, especially producers' goods, are allocated according to the state plan and distributed through state-controlled channels and facilities.' As most of the products are purchased by the state there would appear to be no need for sales marketing; the primary function of the distribution system is merely to handle the physical flow of goods. However, goods are often in short supply. Therefore, to ensure an adequate supply of inputs to fulfil the production quotas, numerous purchasing agents are used to locate the necessary inputs for enterprises. Basically, the commodity flow is pulled by the buyers rather than pushed by the sellers. This supply insufficiency leads to many problems, including commodity hoarding by users and producers alike. Consequently, the level of idle inventory is unnecessarily high and the size and speed of the commodity flow reduced. As the fulfilment of production quotas depends on the timely procurement of inputs by enterprises, an efficient distribution system is a prerequisite to the success of the state plan. Recently, in accordance with the goal of modernizing agriculture, industry, science and the military, enterprises have been allowed greater freedom in commodity

The Distribution System for Producers' Goods in China

This paper applies the Kennedy and Thirlwall method of input-output formulation to study the differential import effect of final expenditures in the U.S. Import contents of consumption, investment, and government expenditures as calculated for 1958, 1963, 1967, 1972, 1977, 1981, and 1984. It also separates import effects of trade expansion, changes in the competitive position, shifts in the level of final demands and changes in the structure of final demands. It is found that the import fractions of the four final expenditures differ substantially, resulting in different income multipliers. [410]

Chiou-Shuang Yan

Papers

Air pollution control costs and consumption pattern effects A regional analysis

The Distribution System for Producers' Goods in China

Import Contents of Final Expenditures in the United States