This 1966 paperback edition of a publication which first appeared in 1963 has by now been widely reviewed as a worthy contribution to the sociological study of deviant behavior. Its current appearance as a paperback is a testimonial both to the quality of the work and to the prominence of deviant behavior in this generation. In general the author places deviance in perspective, identifies types of deviant behavior, considers the role of rule makers and enforcers, and some of the problems in studying deviance. In addition, he develops a sequential model of deviance relying on the concept of career, a concept originally developed in studies of occupations. In his study of a particular kind of deviance, the use of marihuana, the author posits and tests systematically an hypothesis about the genesis of marihuana use for pleasure. The hypothesis traces the sequence of changes in individual attitude

Outsiders Studies in the Sociology of Deviance.

Practical Reason On The Theory Of Action

The prevalence of doping in elite sports is relevant for all those involved in sports, particularly for evaluating anti-doping policy measures. Remarkably, few scientific articles have addressed this subject so far, and the last review dates back to 1997. As a consequence, the true prevalence of doping in elite sports is unknown. Even though it is virtually impossible to uncover the exact prevalence of a prohibited activity such as doping, various methods are available to uncover parts of this particular problem, which enables the circumvention (to a certain degree) of the issues of truthfulness, definition problems and the limits of pharmacological evidence. This review outlines the various methods that exist and presents the scarce data available in this area. It is concluded that a combination of questionnaires using the Randomised Response Technique and models of biological parameters is able to provide the statistical possibilities to reveal accurate estimates of this often undisclosed practice. Data gathered in this way yield an estimation of 14–39 % of current adult elite athletes who intentionally used doping. These period prevalences have been found in specific sub-groups of elite athletes, and the available data suggest that the prevalence of doping is considerably different between sub-groups with varying types of sport, levels and nationalities. The above-mentioned figure of 14–39 % is likely to be a more accurate reflection of the prevalence of intentional doping in elite sports than that provided by doping control test results (estimate of doping: 1–2 % annually) or questionnaire-based research (estimations between 1 and 70 % depending on sport, level and exact definitions of intent and doping). In the future, analytical science may play a more important role in this topic if it may become feasible to detect very low concentrations of prohibited substances in sewage systems downstream of major sporting events. However, it is clear that current doping control test results show a distinct underestimation of true doping prevalence. It does not seem feasible to distil better estimates of the prevalence of doping based on performance indicators or ego documents because of the various existing effects that influence athletic performance. Such information can only be used as extra information to augment the accuracy of prevalence rates that have been found by using other techniques. True doping prevalence studies have been scarce in elite sports so far. With the correct application of the available scientific methods, preferably using harmonised definitions of the terms ‘doping’ and ‘elite sports’, more information on this topic may be gathered in a relatively short time. This would assist anti-doping professionals in the future in order to evaluate the effects of possible anti-doping measures, and better anti-doping policies would serve athletes who compete without doping. The existing anti-doping measures seriously impact the lives of elite athletes and their immediate entourage, which imposes a moral burden to evaluate these measures in the best possible way.

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Prevalence of Doping Use in Elite Sports: A Review of Numbers and Methods

Using a psychosociological approach, the purpose of this study was to identify and understand the use of doping substances by young elite cyclists. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with young cyclists who were hoping to find a professional team and cyclists who had recently become professional. All of the young cyclists interviewed took nutritional supplements and believed that they improved their performance, which has been shown by other scholars to be a risk factor for doping. These cyclists believed that doping at the professional level in cycling was acceptable but did not approve of it at the amateur level. They were attracted to doping; they were open to using doping substances themselves if it was the key to continuing their cycling career, but only after they became professional. Team staff, doctors, parents and friends helped to create a “clean” environment that prevented the young cyclists from doping before becoming professional. The more experienced cyclists, who doped or used to dope, transmitted the culture of doping to the young cyclists, teaching them doping methods and which substances to use. This study could help to improve prevention and help to detect doping, as it is clear that doping behaviors begin at the amateur level.

Doping use among young elite cyclists: a qualitative psychosociological approach.

The purpose of this study was to provide an ecologically valid account of the experiences of ‘admitted dopers’. In-depth interviews were conducted with five elite athletes from the sports of road cycling, mountain biking and weightlifting. The athletes had either tested positive for banned substances or had admitted to prior drug use after their retirement from competitive sport. Thematic analysis was used to extract meaning from the interview data. Individual psychological factors and contextual influences on the athletes' doping decisions were identified. The conflicting responses of these athletes make the identification of a psychological profile of athletes most at-risk for doping difficult, but morality was consistently cited as an important consideration. The culture of the athletes' team or training group and ‘critical incidents’ during the athletes' careers were often influential in precipitating drug use. Doping deterrents were also discussed, of which guilt and shame were predominant. The athle...

A qualitative analysis of the experiences of elite athletes who have admitted to doping for performance enhancement

The objective of this article is to understand how the specific interactions between actors involved in the production of performance influence the socialization process by which cyclists learn the...

The Socialization of Young Cyclists and the Culture of Doping

Historically, anti-doping efforts have focused on the detection and deterrence of doping in elite and competitive sport. There is, however, a growing concern that doping is occurring outside the organised sporting system; giving rise to the belief that the misuse of doping agents in recreational sport has become a societal problem and a public health issue that must be addressed. The EU Commission awarded a contract (EAC/2013/0617) to a Consortium to undertake this Study with the aim of developing the evidence-base for policies designed to combat doping in recreational sport. Fourteen internationally recognised experts shaped the Study which comprised (i) the collection of primary data through a structured survey, and (ii) secondary data through literature searches and website analysis. All 28 Member States participated in the information-gathering process. Specifically, this involved a systematic study of the ethical considerations, legal position, prevention research landscape, and current practise in relation to the prevention of doping in recreational sport. The Study provides a comprehensive overview of current practice and legislation as it applies to the prevention of doping and promotes and supports the sharing of best practices in the EU regarding the fight against doping in recreational sport. It concludes with seven recommendations for future action that focus on the need for a coordinated response in relation to the problems arising from doping in recreational sport.

Study on Doping Prevention: A map of Legal, Regulatory and Prevention Practice Provisions in EU 28

L’analyse de recits de vie de cinq cyclistes dopes, professionnels pendant les annees 1990, met a jour, a travers la notion de carriere, une inscription progressive des pratiques dopantes dans le parcours des cyclistes, celles-ci allant de pair avec une rationalisation accrue des procedures d’entrainement. Le glissement progressif des individus du monde ordinaire a celui extra-ordinaire du haut-niveau amene ces cyclistes dopes a ne pas se ressentir en tant que tels. A l’instar du processus collectif de la deviance montre par H.S. Becker, les parcours pharmacologiques ainsi que le basculement du systeme de normes en matiere de sante, d’ethique sont le resultat des nombreuses interactions avec les pairs cyclistes, les dirigeants mais aussi les medecins du sport qui les encadrent.

Le dopage dans le cyclisme professionnel au milieu des années 1990 : une reconstruction des valeurs sportives

Du cyclisme professionnel des annees 1980-2000, on retient d'abord les scandales, sans connaitre le role exact joue par la question du dopage dans la culture professionnelle des cyclistes. L'intention des auteurs n'est pas de denonce les coureurs consommateurs de pharmacologies ni de justifier le dopage mais d'adopter un regard sociologique sur une pratique constante dans ce milieu professionnel. Cet ouvrage s'interesse aux acteurs et institutions qui en fixant les normes du dopage transforment les conditions d'exercice de ce metier, il montre les premieres initiations, des premieres competitions a l'entree dans le milieu professionnel. En s'appuyant sur les recits de cyclistes, les auteurs identifient les etapes d'une carriere autant physique que morale et montrent que la dynamique de la profession echappe aux cyclistes. Celle-ci depend du cadre normatif impose aux coureurs, de la structure du marche et des parcours individuels.

Christophe Brissonneau

Papers

The Socialization of Young Cyclists and the Culture of Doping

Study on Doping Prevention: A map of Legal, Regulatory and Prevention Practice Provisions in EU 28

Le dopage dans le cyclisme professionnel au milieu des années 1990 : une reconstruction des valeurs sportives

L'épreuve du dopage. Sociologie du cyclisme professionnel

L'épreuve du dopage