https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/25551/1/Revised%20War%20on%20amateurs%20MS.pdf

The new front in the war on doping: Amateur athletes

In recent years anti-doping organizations have implemented various measures to deter elite athletes from using performance-enhancing drugs One of the main challenges in the fight against doping is that the effectiveness of these anti-doping measures is still unknown Since the effectiveness of the measures depends primarily on the athletes' perception, this study focuses on the following four objectives: (1) How effective do top-level athletes perceive individual anti-doping measures to be? (2) Are the results stable across different sports and (3) genders? (4) How can the anti-doping measures be structured into appropriate categories? To address these issues the perceived effectiveness of 14 anti-doping measures was surveyed among 146 top athletes from Germany (Cycling: N = 42; Athletics: N = 104) who are members of at least the National Testing Pool Results reveal significant differences in the perceived effectiveness of the anti-doping measures Improved diagnostics were considered to be the most effective remedy for doping, followed by increased bans and the implementation of an anti-doping law In contrast, fines and a leniency program were considered significantly less effective Second, with the exception of indirect detection methods and increased use of an Anti-Doping Administration and Management System, results were consistent across cyclists and track and field athletes Third, no significant gender difference was observed Finally, an exploratory factor analysis showed that all anti-doping measures can be classified into the three categories risk of detection (eg, control frequency and efficiency), punishment (eg, fines and bans) and communication (eg, education program) The results of this study provide a guideline for future research and for anti-doping and sport organizations when developing strategies against doping and allocating their anti-doping budget

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Perception of the Current Anti-doping Regime - A Quantitative Study Among German Top-Level Cyclists and Track and Field Athletes.

We critically discuss a recent paper in favour of criminalising doping in the legal order of the UK. We revisit the arguments put forward and put them in context with regard to their political, ethical and legal implications. On this basis, we then address the question whether drawing upon the ‘spirit of sport’ as defined in the World Anti-Doping Code is warranted in view of supporting the idea of criminalising doping, and finally present counter arguments that plead against the criminalisation of doping.

Do public perception and the ‘spirit of sport' justify the criminalisation of doping? A reply to Claire Sumner

https://amazoniainvestiga.info/index.php/amazonia/article/download/1193/1081

Fight Against Doping: Experience of Ukraine and European States

The Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) refers to the collection of data related to an individual athlete. The ABP contains the Haematological Module and the Steroidal Module, which are used for the longitudinal monitoring of variables in blood and urine, respectively. Based on changes in these variables, a statistical model detects outliers which indicate doping use and guide further targeted testing of the athlete. Presently, athletes can access their data of the Haematological Module in the Anti-Doping Administration and Management System (ADAMS). However, granting athletes access to this data has been a matter of debate within the anti-doping community. This article investigates whether an athlete has a right to access the contents of their ABP profile. We approached this discussion by comparing the nature of ABP data with that of forensic and medical data and touched on important concerns with ABP data disclosure to athletes such as potentially allowing for the development of alternative doping techniques to circumvent detection; and making athletes vulnerable to pressure by the media to publicly release their data. Furthermore, given that ABP data may contain medically relevant information that can be used to diagnose disease, athletes may over-interpret its medical significance and wrongly see it as a free health check. We argue that safeguarding the integrity of the ABP system must be seen as the most essential element and thus a departure from immediate data disclosure is necessary. Two different strategies for delayed data disclosure are proposed which diminish the chances of ABP data being misused to refine doping techniques.

Do athletes have a right to access data in their Athlete Biological Passport

This article examines public perceptions of doping in sport, critically evaluates the effectiveness of current anti-doping sanctions and proposes the criminalisation of doping in sport in the UK as part of a growing global movement towards such criminalisation at national level. Criminalising doping is advanced on two main grounds: as a stigmatic deterrent and as a form of retributive punishment enforced through the criminal justice system. The ‘spirit of sport’ defined by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) as being based on the values of ethics, health and fair-play is identified as being undermined by the ineffectiveness of existing anti-doping policy in the current climate of doping revelations, and is assessed as relevant to public perceptions and the future of sport as a whole. The harm-reductionist approach permitting the use of certain performance enhancing drugs (PEDs) is considered as an alternative to anti-doping, taking into account athlete psychology, the problems encountered in containing doping in sport through anti-doping measures and the effect of these difficulties on the ‘spirit of sport’. This approach is dismissed in favour of criminalising doping in sport based on the offence of fraud. It will be argued that the criminalisation of doping could act as a greater deterrent than existing sanctions imposed by International Federations, and, when used in conjunction with those sanctions, will raise the overall ‘price’ of doping. The revelations of corruption within the existing system of self-governance within sport have contributed to a disbelieving public and it will be argued that the criminalisation of doping in sport could assist in satisfying the public that justice is being done and in turn achieve greater belief in the truth of athletic performances.

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Claire Sumner

Papers

The spirit of sport: the case for criminalisation of doping in the UK