Cured cocoa beans are obtained through a post-harvest, batchwise process of fermentation and drying carried out on farms in the equatorial zone. Fermentation of cocoa pulp-bean mass is performed mainly in heaps or boxes. It is made possible by a succession of yeast, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and acetic acid bacteria (AAB) activities. Yeasts ferment the glucose of the cocoa pulp into ethanol, perform pectinolysis and produce flavour compounds, such as (higher) alcohols, aldehydes, organic acids and esters. LAB ferment the glucose, fructose and citric acid of the cocoa pulp into lactic acid, acetic acid, mannitol and pyruvate, generate a microbiologically stable fermentation environment, provide lactate as carbon source for the indispensable growth of AAB, and contribute to the cocoa and chocolate flavours by the production of sugar alcohols, organic acids, (higher) alcohols and aldehydes. AAB oxidize the ethanol into acetic acid, which penetrates into the bean cotyledons to prevent seed germination. Destruction of the subcellular seed structure in turn initiates enzymatic and non-enzymatic conversions inside the cocoa beans, which provides the necessary colour and flavour precursor molecules (hydrophilic peptides, hydrophobic amino acids and reducing sugars) for later roasting of the cured cocoa beans, the first step of the chocolate-making.

Functional role of yeasts, lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria in cocoa fermentation processes.

Climate change is impacting crop performance and agricultural systems around the world with implications for farmers and consumers. We carried out a systematic review to synthesize evidence regarding the effects of environmental factors associated with climate change and management conditions associated with climate adaptation on the crop quality of a culturally-relevant perennial crop, coffee (Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora). Seventy-three articles were identified that addressed the study's research question including 42 articles on environmental factors, 20 articles on management conditions, and 11 articles on both. While variation was found between studies, findings highlight that coffee quality is vulnerable to changes in light exposure, altitude, water stress, temperature, carbon dioxide, and nutrient management. Both increases as well as decreases were found in secondary metabolites and sensory attributes that determine coffee quality in response to shifts in environmental and management conditions. The most consistent evidence identified through this systematic review includes the following two trends: (1) increased altitude is associated with improved sensory attributes of coffee and; (2) increased light exposure is associated with decreased sensory attributes of coffee. Research gaps were found regarding the effects of shifts in carbon dioxide, water stress, and temperature on the directionality (increase, decrease, or non-linear) of coffee quality and how this varies with location, elevation, and management conditions. This systematic review further identified the following research needs: (1) long-term studies that examine the interactive effects of multiple environmental factors and management conditions on coffee quality; (2) studies that examine the interaction between sensory attributes and secondary metabolites that determine coffee quality and; (3) studies on the feasibility of various climate-adaptation strategies for mitigating the effects of climate change on coffee quality. Evidence-based innovations are needed to mitigate climate impacts on coffee quality toward enhanced sustainability and resilience of the coffee sector from farm to cup.

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Climate Change and Coffee Quality: Systematic Review on the Effects of Environmental and Management Variation on Secondary Metabolites and Sensory Attributes of Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora.

In the Colombian Andes, agroforestry is a traditional form of agriculture, characterized by a heterogeneous and often diversified composition of trees and crops. This form of land use provides important ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, reduction of soil erosion and the maintenance of biodiversity by providing a structural complex habitat. Satellite remote sensing is widely used for studying land use patterns and forest cover, however the discrimination between agroforestry systems and forests is still a challenge, especially in heterogeneous landscapes and in rough terrain. Here, we aim to advance the remote sensing of agroforestry systems using field measurements of vegetation structure in combination with Sentinel-2 images. We use spectral and textural variables derived from Sentinel-2 imagery to predict above ground biomass (AGB), leaf area index (LAI) and canopy closure (CC). The relationship between predicted and observed values obtained from Random Forest regression models showed good fits: for AGB with an R2 = 0.92 and relative RMSE = 34%; for LAI with an R2 = 0.91 and relative RMSE = 19%; and for CC an R2 = 0.89 and relative RMSE = 9%. This allowed us to map these important ecosystem variables at landscape scale and establish empirical thresholds, with which a discrimination of agroforestry systems from forests was possible with an accuracy of 94%. Our results suggest that the relationship between vegetation structure and the spectral information obtained by Sentinel-2 can contribute to the detection and characterization of agroforestry systems and thus help quantifying the ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation potential provided by this type of tropical agriculture.

Detection and characterization of agroforestry systems in the Colombian Andes using sentinel-2 imagery

Flavor is one of the most prominent characteristics of chocolate and is crucial in determining the price the consumer is willing to pay. At present, two types of cocoa beans have been characterized according to their flavor and aroma profile, i.e., (1) the bulk (or ordinary) and (2) the fine flavor cocoa (FFC). The FFC has been distinguished from bulk cocoa for having a great variety of flavors. Aiming to differentiate the FFC bean origin of Peruvian chocolate, an analytical methodology using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was developed. This methodology allows us to characterize eleven volatile organic compounds correlated to the aromatic profile of FFC chocolate from this geographical region (based on buttery, fruity, floral, ethereal sweet, and roasted flavors). Monitoring these 11 flavor compounds during the chain of industrial processes in a retrospective way, starting from the final chocolate bar towards pre-roasted cocoa beans, allows us to better understand the cocoa flavor development involved during each stage. Hence, this methodology was useful to distinguish chocolates from different regions, north and south of Peru, and production lines. This research can benefit the chocolate industry as a quality control protocol, from the raw material to the final product.

Mass Spectrometry-Based Flavor Monitoring of Peruvian Chocolate Fabrication Process.

Perú boasts a wide diversity of fine aroma cocoa that merits quantifying its total phenols, anthocyanins, and characterize sensory the liquor and nibs of cacao, in two fermentation systems: traditional and micro-fermentation. The studying samples were “Chuncho”, Señorita variety, Achoccha, Pamuco and Común, and SHU-1 variety. For the quantification of total phenols was prepared a hydroalcoholic extract (100mg/mL). To the sensory characterization were chosen thirteen attributes whose results were subjected to multivariate analysis using the principal components method. The amount of total phenols was lower in the liquor compared to cocoa nibs, except in the microfermentation of Señorita and Achoccha variety, and in the traditional fermentation of Señorita variety; being the anthocyanin content higher compared to nibs. The cocoa liquor of Achoccha, Común and Señorita varieties in microfermentation developed typical sensory notes of fine cocoas, with important correlations between bitterness/astringency (0.90) and between astringency/fresh fruit (-0.64). The nibs showed fine cocoa profiles with high correlation between aroma/spices (0.72) and intermediate between defects/floral (0.61), considering to SHU-1 variety, like a fine aroma cocoa.

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Quantification of phenols, anthocyanins and sensory characterization of nibs and liquor of five cocoa varieties, in two fermentation systems.

Cocoa is a food product with sensory and organoleptic attributes that depends on postharvest processes such as fermentation. This process affects not only the sensory profile, but also chemical reactions and therefore, the quality of the product. Hence, the aim of this study is to carry out a chemical and sensory characterization of cocoa ( Theobroma cacao L.) samples from different cocoa farms in the department of Huila, Colombia. Moreover, a bromatological analysis was performed, secondary metabolites (caffeine and theobromine) and total polyphenols were determined, as well as volatile fraction compounds using gas chromatography by solid phase microextraction in the headspace mode (HS-SPME); finally, the samples were classified (acceptable, unpleasant and contaminated) according to a tasting panel. In general, bromatological characteristics of cocoa samples showed acceptable levels, presence of special volatile compounds (linalool and linalool oxide) that affected sensory attributes (floral). Likewise, levels of caffeine and theobromine had adequate levels that resulted in bitter taste. A relationship was found between volatile fraction compounds and bromatological analysis variables, secondary metabolites and total polyphenols that affected the quality of the product.

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Organoleptic quality assessment of Theobroma cacao L. in cocoa farms in northern Huila, Colombia

It was calculated the carbon amount stored in four types of shade coffee systems in the south of Colombia: high density of trees for diversified shade (Alta. Dens), Guamo in high density (Guam.Ad), Walnut in high density (Nog.Ad), Banana with low diversity (Plat.bdiv), Complex diversified shadow (Com.Div), through the use of allometric equations for measuring biomass; the study was developed between June and December of 2012. The typologies with the highest rate of carbon storage were: Com.Div and Guam.Ad with 87.37 and 58.11 t ha-1 of C respectively. The typologies Alta. dens and Guam.Ad had a lower rate of carbon storage. A relation between the % of coverage of the typologies and the increase in the accumulation of carbon was found; that means, systems with higher diversification presented higher values of carbon buildup

/pdf/almacenamiento-de-carbono-en-arreglos-agroforestales-2pxfql8w9n.pdf

Almacenamiento de carbono en arreglos agroforestales asociados con café (Coffea arabica) en el sur de Colombia

espanolEl cacao se cultiva bajo sistemas de produccion como los agroforestales y libre exposicion solar, su uso depende de las regiones agroecologicas donde se cultiva El manejo del dosel de sombra incide en las condiciones microclimaticas que beneficia el comportamiento hidrico (flujo de savia Vs y potencial hidrico Ѱ) de la planta de cacao Se evaluo como la modificacion del dosel de sombra (sistemas a libre exposicion solar SLE y agroforestales con media MPAR y baja BPAR radiacion transmitida) afectan el comportamiento hidrico en arboles de cacao en epocas contrastantes de precipitacion Para medir el Vs y Ѱ se instalaron sensores de calor y psicrometros de tallo en arboles de cacao tipo CCN51 Se encontro un efecto del sistema de produccion y epoca de monitoreo sobre el Vs y Ѱ en las plantas de cacao El comportamiento del Ѱ fue mayor en SLE en las dos epocas, pero se acentuo mas en la epoca de minima precipitacion Se encontro un comportamiento contrario en Vs, donde esta variable fue mayor en BPAR durante la epoca de minima precipitacion De acuerdo con los resultados obtenidos el manejo de doseles de sombra en cultivos de cacao bajo climas suboptimos incide positivamente en el estatus hidrico EnglishCocoa is grown under production systems such as agroforestry and full sunli-ght exposition, its use depends on the agroecological regions where it is culti-vated The management of the shade canopy affects the microclimatic condi-tions that mainly benefit the hydric behaviour (sap flow Vs and water potential Ѱ) in the cocoa plant It was evaluated how the modification of the shade ca-nopy (full sunlight exposition systems SLE and agroforestry with MPAR medium and low BPAR transmitted radiation) affects the water status of cocoa trees in contrasting periods of precipitation For the measurement of Vs and Ѱ heat sensors and stem psychrometers were installed in cocoa type CCN51 trees An effect of the production system and monitoring season on Vs andѰ was found in cocoa plants The Ѱ was higher in SLE in both seasons, but it was more ac-centuated in the period of minimum precipitation A contrary behavior was found in Vs, since in minimum precipitation this variable was greater in BPAR According to the results obtained, the management of shade canopies in cocoa crops under suboptimal climates positively affects water status

/pdf/los-sistemas-agroforestales-y-la-incidencia-sobre-el-estatus-3mfe6r64up.pdf

Los sistemas agroforestales y la incidencia sobre el estatus hídrico en árboles de cacao

The composition of minority compounds in samples of roasted and ground coffee ( Coffea arabica var. caturra) cultivated in three altitudinal ranges 1300-1400, 1400-1600, 1600-1800 m. a. s. l., in the Huila department of Colombia were determined. The samples were collected in July of 2012. pH, total acidity and total lipids were measured. Subsequently, the composition of total lipids after esterification and gas chromatography analysis coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was established. Quality cup test considering the following attributes:  fragrance/aroma, taste, residual flavor, acidity, body, uniformity, balance, clean cup, sweetness, quality and note, were performed. No statistically significant difference (p 0.05) was found in the evaluated attributes at the quality cup test at different altitudinal range.

Minority compounds and sensory analysis evaluation of Coffea arabica var. caturra cultivated in three different altitudinal ranges

Volcanic soils denominated Andosols cause direct damages to the radicular system of crops, because of the Aluminum soils levels and the blockage in the transport of elements such as Calcium and Phosphorus to the aerial part of the plant, the effects are neutralized witch the applications of lime with Calcium carbonate (CaCO ). The aim of the study was to Evaluate the effects of applying different doses of Calcium carbonate to the soil on the chemical characteristics: pH, phosphorus availability, exchangeable Aluminum, Calcium availability, and Cation exchange capacity. The research was developed in Popayan and Calibio from May to October 2005. In a complete randomized block design with four blocks, four treatments were allocated (T0: (no applications); T1: 1 Ton CaCO3.ha-1 ; T2: 2 Ton CaCO3.ha-1 and T3: 3 Ton CaCO3.ha-1). Phosphorus availability, Calcium availability and exchangeable aluminum showed significant differences (p< 0.05). T1 presented low level of phosphorus availability (6.0 ppm) 60 days after the CaCO application; T3 presented the highest levels of Calcium availability (12.1 and 4.8 meq/100 g) 30 and 60 days after the CaCO3 application respectively. For exchangeable Aluminum the lowest values (0.4 y 0.5 meq /100 g) were found in T3 30 and 120 days after the application of CaCO3. There were no significant differences in pH and CEC during the time of evaluation.

Claudia Mercedes Ordoñez Espinosa

Papers

Organoleptic quality assessment of Theobroma cacao L. in cocoa farms in northern Huila, Colombia

Almacenamiento de carbono en arreglos agroforestales asociados con café (Coffea arabica) en el sur de Colombia

Los sistemas agroforestales y la incidencia sobre el estatus hídrico en árboles de cacao

Minority compounds and sensory analysis evaluation of Coffea arabica var. caturra cultivated in three different altitudinal ranges

Efecto de la aplicación de calcio sobre las propiedades químicas de un andosol (Popayán, Colombia)