How we raise young children is one of today's most highly personalized and sharply politicized issues, in part because each of us can claim some level of "expertise." The debate has intensified as discoveries about our development-in the womb and in the first months and years-have reached the popular media. How can we use our burgeoning knowledge to assure the well-being of all young children, for their own sake as well as for the sake of our nation? Drawing from new findings, this book presents important conclusions about nature-versus-nurture, the impact of being born into a working family, the effect of politics on programs for children, the costs and benefits of intervention, and other issues. The committee issues a series of challenges to decision makers regarding the quality of child care, issues of racial and ethnic diversity, the integration of children's cognitive and emotional development, and more. Authoritative yet accessible, From Neurons to Neighborhoods presents the evidence about "brain wiring" and how kids learn to speak, think, and regulate their behavior. It examines the effect of the climate-family, child care, community-within which the child grows.

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From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development

This report builds on a highly valued predecessor, the 1994 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report entitled Reducing Risks for Mental Disorders: Frontiers for Preventive Intervention Research. That report provided the basis for understanding prevention science, elucidating its then-existing research base, and contemplating where it should go in the future. This report documents that an increasing number of mental, emotional, and behavioral problems in young people are in fact preventable. The proverbial ounce of prevention will indeed be worth a pound of cure: effectively applying the evidence-based prevention interventions at hand could potentially save billions of dollars in associated costs by avoiding or tempering these disorders in many individuals. Furthermore, devoting significantly greater resources to research on even more effective prevention and promotion efforts, and then reliably implementing the findings of such research, could substantially diminish the human and economic toll.

Preventing Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Disorders Among Young People: Progress and Possibilities

Research on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a highly prevalent and controversial condition, has, for the most part, been descriptive and atheoretical. The imperative to discover the genetic and environmental risk factors for ADHD is motivating the search for quantifiable intermediate constructs, termed endophenotypes. In this selective review, we conclude that such endophenotypes should be solidly grounded in the neurosciences. We propose that three such endophenotypes — a specific abnormality in reward-related circuitry that leads to shortened delay gradients, deficits in temporal processing that result in high intrasubject intertrial variability, and deficits in working memory — are most amenable to integrative collaborative approaches that aim to uncover the causes of ADHD.

Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes.

https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/1905528/Farone%20World%20Psychiatry%202(2)%202003%20u.pdf

The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: is it an American condition?

The relationship of the cholinergic system of the brain to memory and cognitive functions was studied in human subjects by the use of scopolamine, methscopolamine bromide, and physostigmine. A battery of tests evaluated immediate memory span, memory storage (acquisition), and retrieval, as well as nonmemory cognitive ability. Subjects receiving scopolamine showed impairment of memory storage and possibly retrieval despite normal immediate memory span; nonmemory cognitive functions were also impaired. Neither methscopolamine (a peripherally acting scopolamine analogue) nor physostigmine (a centrally acting anticholinesterase agent) produced any significant changes in memory or other cognitive functions. Comparisons of the memory and cognitive deficits induced by scopolamine with the performance of aged subjects revealed a marked similarity of pattern. The possible theoretical explanations for the behavioral similarity seen with central cholinergic blockade and normal aging are discussed.

Human Memory and the Cholinergic System: A Relationship to Aging?

Trends in the prescribing of psychotropic medications to preschoolers

ContextRecent reports on the use of psychotropic medications for preschool-aged
children with behavioral and emotional disorders warrant further examination
of trends in the type and extent of drug therapy and sociodemographic correlates.ObjectivesTo determine the prevalence of psychotropic medication use in preschool-aged
youths and to show utilization trends across a 5-year span.DesignAmbulatory care prescription records from 2 state Medicaid programs
and a salaried group-model health maintenance organization (HMO) were used
to perform a population-based analysis of three 1-year cross-sectional data
sets (for the years 1991, 1993, and 1995).Setting and ParticipantsFrom 1991 to 1995, the number of enrollees aged 2 through 4 years in
a Midwestern state Medicaid (MWM) program ranged from 146,369 to 158,060;
in a mid-Atlantic state Medicaid (MAM) program, from 34,842 to 54,237; and
in an HMO setting in the Northwest, from 19,107 to 19,322.Main Outcome MeasuresTotal, age-specific, and gender-specific utilization prevalences per
1000 enrollees for 3 major psychotropic drug classes (stimulants, antidepressants,
and neuroleptics) and 2 leading psychotherapeutic medications (methylphenidate
and clonidine); rates of increased use of these drugs from 1991 to 1995, compared
across the 3 sites.ResultsThe 1995 rank order of total prevalence in preschoolers (per 1000) in
the MWM program was: stimulants (12.3), 90% of which represents methylphenidate
(11.1); antidepressants (3.2); clonidine (2.3); and neuroleptics (0.9). A
similar rank order was observed for the MAM program, while the HMO had nearly
3 times more clonidine than antidepressant use (1.9 vs 0.7). Sizable increases
in prevalence were noted between 1991 and 1995 across the 3 sites for clonidine,
stimulants, and antidepressants, while neuroleptic use increased only slightly.
Methylphenidate prevalence in 2 through 4-year-olds increased at each site:
MWM, 3-fold; MAM, 1.7-fold; and HMO, 3.1-fold. Decreases occurred in the relative
proportions of previously dominant psychotherapeutic agents in the stimulant
and antidepressant classes, while increases occurred for newer, less established
agents.ConclusionsIn all 3 data sources, psychotropic medications prescribed for preschoolers
increased dramatically between 1991 and 1995. The predominance of medications
with off-label (unlabeled) indications calls for prospective community-based,
multidimensional outcome studies.

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/articlepdf/192424/joc91250.pdf

Trends in the prescribing of psychotropic medications to preschoolers.

Objective To examine changes in the full spectrum of psychotropic medication treatment for youths from 1987 to 1996. Methods A population-based analysis of community treatment data on nearly 900 000 youths enrolled in 2 US health care systems included (1) computerized Medicaid data from 2 states (a midwestern state and a mid-Atlantic state) composed of outpatient prescription claims and enrollment records and (2) computerized prescription dispensing records from a group-model health maintenance organization. Ten 1-year cross-sectional data sets from 1987 through 1996 were analyzed. Results Total psychotropic medication prevalence for youths increased 2- to 3-fold and included most classes of medication. The rapid growth since 1991 of α-agonists, neuroleptics, and "mood stabilizer" anticonvulsants was particularly notable. The 1996 prevalence of any psychotropic medication among youths younger than 20 years was remarkably similar (5.9%-6.3%) across all 3 sites, with stimulants and antidepressants consistently ranked first and second. Medicaid rates almost always exceeded health maintenance organization rates by large margins, particularly for α-agonists, neuroleptics, "mood stabilizer" anticonvulsants, and lithium. Youths in health maintenance organizations had rates similar to Medicaid-insured youths for antidepressants and hypnotics. Over the decade, there was a proportional increase in females receiving stimulants and in males receiving antidepressants, particularly for the 10- to 14-year-old group. The prevalence ratios of whites to African Americans narrowed substantially in 1 Medicaid site. Conclusions Youth psychotropic treatment utilization during the 1990s nearly reached adult utilization rates. Youth findings can be used to accurately assess the duration of treatment and unforeseen practice pattern changes, and to identify safety concerns.

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/articlepdf/481233/poa20275_17_25.pdf

Psychotropic practice patterns for youth: a 10-year perspective.

Objectives This study assessed whether mental health services for youths differ with respect to medical assistance aid category. Methods Computerized claims for 15,507 youths with Medicaid insurance in a populous county of a mid-Atlantic state were used to establish population-based prevalence estimates of mental disorders and psychotherapeutic treatments during 1996. Results An analysis of service claims revealed that the prevalence of mental disorders among youths enrolled in foster care (57%) was twice that of youths receiving Supplemental Security Income (SSI; 26%) and nearly 15 times that of other youths receiving other types of aid (4%). Rates of mental health service use were pronounced among foster care youths aged 6 to 14 years. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, depression, and developmental disorders were the most prevalent disorders. Stimulants, antidepressants, and anticonvulsants were the most prevalent medications. Conclusions Youths enrolled in foster care and youths receiving SSI use far more mental health services than do youths in other aid categories. Additional research should evaluate the complexity and outcomes of mental health services for youths in foster care.

Mental health services for youths in foster care and disabled youths.

CONTEXT. Studies have revealed that youth in foster care covered by Medicaid insurance receive psychotropic medication at a rate >3 times that of Medicaid-insured youth who qualify by low family income. Systematic data on patterns of medication treatment, particularly concomitant drugs, for youth in foster care are limited. OBJECTIVE. The purpose of this work was to describe and quantify patterns of psychotropic monotherapy and concomitant therapy prescribed to a randomly selected, 1-month sample of youth in foster care who had been receiving psychotropic medication. METHODS. Medicaid data were accessed for a July 2004 random sample of 472 medicated youth in foster care aged 0 through 19 years from a southwestern US state. Psychotropic medication treatment data were identified by concomitant pattern, frequency, medication class, subclass, and drug entity and were analyzed in relation to age group; gender; race or ethnicity; International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, psychiatric diagnosis; and physician specialty. RESULTS. Of the foster children who had been dispensed psychotropic medication, 41.3% received ≥3 different classes of these drugs during July 2004, and 15.9% received ≥4 different classes. The most frequently used medications were antidepressants (56.8%), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder drugs (55.9%), and antipsychotic agents (53.2%). The use of specific psychotropic medication classes varied little by diagnostic grouping. Psychiatrists prescribed 93% of the psychotropic medication dispensed to youth in foster care. The use of ≥2 drugs within the same psychotropic medication class was noted in 22.2% of those who were given prescribed drugs concomitantly. CONCLUSIONS. Concomitant psychotropic medication treatment is frequent for youth in foster care and lacks substantive evidence as to its effectiveness and safety.

/pdf/psychotropic-medication-patterns-among-youth-in-foster-care-52a1p4ezie.pdf

Daniel J. Safer

Papers

Trends in the prescribing of psychotropic medications to preschoolers

Trends in the prescribing of psychotropic medications to preschoolers.

Psychotropic practice patterns for youth: a 10-year perspective.

Mental health services for youths in foster care and disabled youths.

Psychotropic medication patterns among youth in foster care.