Preface Chapter 1 The challenge Chapter 2 The nature of the evidence: A synthesis of meta-analyses Chapter 3 The argument: Visible teaching and visible learning Chapter 4: The contributions from the student Chapter 5 The contributions from the home Chapter 6 The contributions from the school Chapter 7 The contributions from the teacher Chapter 8 The contributions from the curricula Chapter 9 The contributions from teaching approaches - I Chapter 10 The contributions from teaching approaches - II Chapter 11: Bringing it all together Appendix A: The 800 meta-analyses Appendix B: The meta-analyses by rank order References

Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement

In the past few years several major reports highlighted the gap between our knowledge of effective treatments and services currently being received by consumers. These reports agree that we know much about interventions that are effective but make little use of them to help achieve important behavioral health outcomes for children families and adults nationally. This theme is repeated in reports by the Surgeon General (United States Department of Health and Human Services 1999; 2001) the National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH] National Advisory Mental Health Council Workgroup on Child and Adolescent Mental Health Intervention Development and Deployment (2001) Bernfeld Farrington & Leschied (2001) Institute of Medicine (2001) and the Presidents New Freedom Commission on Mental Health (2003). The authors call for applied research to better understand service delivery processes and contextual factors to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of program implementation at local state and national levels. Our understanding of how to develop and evaluate evidence-based intervention programs has been furthered by on-going efforts to research and refine programs and practices to define "evidence bases" and to designate and catalogue "evidence-based programs or practices". However the factors involved in successful implementation of these programs are not as well understood. Current views of implementation are based on the scholarly foundations prepared by Pressman & Wildavskys (1973) study of policy implementation Havelock & Havelocks (1973) classic curriculum for training change agents and Rogers (1983; 1995) series of analyses of factors influencing decisions to choose a given innovation. These foundations were tested and further informed by the experience base generated by pioneering attempts to implement Fairweather Lodges and National Follow-Through education models among others. Petersilia (1990) concluded that "The ideas embodied in innovative social programs are not self-executing." Instead what is needed is an "implementation perspective on innovation--an approach that views postadoption events as crucial and focuses on the actions of those who convert it into practice as the key to success or failure". (excerpt)

Implementation research: a synthesis of the literature.

Statistical Analysis With Missing Data (2nd ed.) (Book)

Objective To determine the empirical evidence for deficits in working memory (WM) processes in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Method Exploratory meta-analytic procedures were used to investigate whether children with ADHD exhibit WM impairments. Twenty-six empirical research studies published from 1997 to December, 2003 (subsequent to a previous review) met our inclusion criteria. WM measures were categorized according to both modality (verbal, spatial) and type of processing required (storage versus storage/manipulation). Results Children with ADHD exhibited deficits in multiple components of WM that were independent of comorbidity with language learning disorders and weaknesses in general intellectual ability. Overall effect sizes for spatial storage (effect size=0.85, CI=0.62 − 1.08) and spatial central executive WM (effect size=1.06, confidence interval=0.72-1.39) were greater than those obtained for verbal storage (effect size=0.47, confidence interval=0.36-0.59) and verbal central executive WM (effect size=0.43, confidence interval=0.24-0.62). Conclusion: Evidence of WM impairments in children with ADHD supports recent theoretical models implicating WM processes in ADHD. Future research is needed to more clearly delineate the nature, severity, and specificity of the impairments to ADHD.

A Meta-Analysis of Working Memory Impairments in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

There is no doubt that all levels of the South African education system consider the academic achievement of our country‘s children of the utmost importance. Each day the public is continually reminded of this through newspapers, radio, and television reports describing the adequacy or inadequacy of educational policy and practices. Certainly, reading achievement is among the most important of educational goals for this nation‘s children. Understanding that the foundation of a child‘s future reading success is often determined before leaving Grade 3 (Juel, 1988), the continual assessment of component literacy skills beginning when children enter pre-school, has become increasingly popular and prevalent in today‘s schools. The National Research Council (1998) indicated that assessment systems that can identify reading difficulties early and prevent later reading failure need to be in place. Good, Simmons, and Smith (1998, p. 46) state that assessment procedures are needed to ―(a) identify children early who are experiencing difficulty acquiring early literacy skills, (b) contribute to the effectiveness of interventions by providing ongoing feedback to teachers, parents, and learners, (c) evaluate the effectiveness of interventions for individual learners, (d) determine when learner progress is adequate and further intervention is not necessary, and (f) evaluate the overall effectiveness of early intervention efforts‖.

Dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills

Fluent reading, often defined as speed and accuracy, is an important skill for all readers to develop Students with learning disabilities (LD) often struggle to read fluently, leading to difficulties in reading comprehension Despite recent attention to reading fluency and ways to improve fluency, it is not clear which features of interventions that are designed to enhance fluency are beneficial for the most struggling readers The purpose of this study is to synthesize research on interventions that are designed primarily to build reading fluency for students with LD The search yielded 24 published and unpublished studies that reported findings on intervention features, including repeated reading with and without a model, sustained reading, number of repetitions, text difficulty, and specific improvement criteria Our findings suggest that effective interventions for building fluency include an explicit model of fluent reading, multiple opportunities to repeatedly read familiar text independently and with corrective feedback, and established performance criteria for increasing text difficulty

A Synthesis of Research on Effective Interventions for Building Reading Fluency with Elementary Students with Learning Disabilities

Words are very peculiar creatures (Anderson & Nagy, 1991; Baumann & 
Kameenui, 1991; Bryson, 1990). They serve to inspire and enrage, clarify 
and confuse, comfort and cudgel, obscure and occupy; the possibilities are 
endless. Were he to offer his uncanny wisdom to the discussion, Yogi Berra, 
that legendary wordsmith of baseball slurs, would probably add: "There are 
words and there are words." Indeed there are.

Direct instruction reading

A deep, developmental construct and definition of fluency, in which fluency and reading comprehension have a reciprocal relationship, is explicated and contrasted with superficial approaches to that construct. The historical development of fluency is outlined, along with conclusions of the U.S. National Reading Panel, to explore why fluency has moved from being “the neglected aspect of reading” to a popular topic in the field. A practical, developmental instructional program based largely on the theoretical framework and research findings of Linnea Ehri is delineated. The nine essential components of that program include building the graphophonic foundations for fluency; building and extending vocabulary and oral language skills; providing expert instruction and practice in the recognition of high-frequency vocabulary; teaching common word parts and spelling patterns; teaching, modeling, and providing practice in the application of a decoding strategy; using appropriate texts to coach strategic behaviors and to build reading speed; using repeated reading procedures as an intervention approach for struggling readers; extending growing fluency through wide independent reading; and monitoring fluency development through appropriate assessment procedures. The position is taken throughout that teaching, developing, and assessing fluency must always be done in the context of reading comprehension.

Fluency: Bridge Between Decoding and Reading Comprehension

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to synthesize findings from 42 interventions (randomized control trials and quasi-experimental studies) on instructional approaches that enhance the mathematics proficiency of students with learning disabilities. We examined the impact of four categories of instructional components: (a) approaches to instruction and/or curriculum design, (b) formative assessment data and feedback to teachers on students' mathematics performance, (c) formative data and feedback to students with LD on their performance, and (d) peer-assisted mathematics instruction. All instructional components except for student feedback with goal-setting and peer-assisted learning within a class resulted in significant mean effects ranging from 0.21 to 1.56. We also examined the effectiveness of these components conditionally, using hierarchical multiple regressions. Two instructional components provided practically and statistically important increases in effect size–teaching students to use heuristi...

Mathematics Instruction for Students With Learning Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis of Instructional Components

We describe the concept of number sense, an analog as important to mathematics learning as phonemic awareness has been to the reading research field. Understanding the concept of number sense and relevant research from cognitive science can help the research community pull together fragmented pieces of earlier knowledge to yield a much richer, more subtle, and more effective means of improving instructional practice. This article demonstrates how the number sense concept can offer a useful framework for conceptualizing interventions that will significantly enhance mathematics instruction for students with mathematical disabilities.

David J. Chard

Papers

A Synthesis of Research on Effective Interventions for Building Reading Fluency with Elementary Students with Learning Disabilities

Direct instruction reading

Fluency: Bridge Between Decoding and Reading Comprehension

Mathematics Instruction for Students With Learning Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis of Instructional Components

Number Sense Rethinking Arithmetic Instruction for Students with Mathematical Disabilities