Males in many species invest substantially in structures that are used in combat with rivals over access to females. These weapons can attain extreme proportions and have diversified in form repeatedly. I review empirical literature on the function and evolution of sexually selected weapons to clarify important unanswered questions for future research. Despite their many shapes and sizes, and the multitude of habitats within which they function, animal weapons share many properties: They evolve when males are able to defend spatially restricted critical resources, they are typically the most variable morphological structures of these species, and this variation honestly reflects among-individual differences in body size or quality. What is not clear is how, or why, these weapons diverge in form. The potential for male competition to drive rapid divergence in weapon morphology remains one of the most exciting and understudied topics in sexual selection research today.

The Evolution of Animal Weapons

CHAPTER 6 – Male Competition, Female Choice, and Sexual Selection in Plants

For the kingdom Animalia, 1,552,319 species have been described in 40 phyla in a new evolutionary classification. Among these, the phylum Arthropoda alone represents 1,242,040 species, or about 80% of the total. The most successful group, the Insecta (1,020,007 species), accounts for about 66% of all animals. The most successful insect order, Coleoptera (387,100 species), represents about 38% of all species in 39 insect orders. Another major group in Arthropoda is the class Arachnida (112,201 species), which is dominated by the mites and ticks (Acari 54,617 species) and spiders (43,579 species). Other highly diverse arthropod groups include Crustacea (66,914 species), Trilobitomorpha (19,606 species) and Myriapoda (11,885 species). The phylum Mollusca (117,358 species) is more diverse than other successful invertebrate phyla Platyhelminthes (29,285 species), Nematoda (24,783 species), Echinodermata (20,509 species), Annelida (17,210 species) and Bryozoa (10,941 species). The phylum Craniata, including the vertebrates, represents 64,832 species (for Recent taxa, except for amphibians): among these 7,694 described species of amphibians, 31,958 species of “fish” and 5,750 species of mammals.

/pdf/an-outline-of-higher-level-classification-and-survey-of-3gsfus3b30.pdf

An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness

Theory suggests that the net benefit of allocating resources to a sexual trait depends both on the strength of sexual selection on that trait and on individual condition. This predicts a tight coevolution between sexual dimorphism and condition dependence and suggests that these patterns of within-sex and between-sex variation may share a common genetic and developmental basis. Although condition-dependent expression of sexual traits is widely documented, the extent of covariation between condition dependence and sexual dimorphism remains poorly known. I investigated the effects of condition (larval diet quality) on multivariate sexual dimorphism in the fly Telostylinus angusticollis (Neriidae). Condition determined the direction of sexual size dimorphism and modulated sexual shape dimorphism by affecting allometric slopes and/or intercepts of sexually homologous traits in both sexes. Although the greatest responses to condition manipulation were observed in male sexual traits, both sexual and nonsexual traits exhibited substantial variation in the nature and magnitude of condition effects. Nonetheless, condition dependence and sexual dimorphism were remarkably congruent: variation in the strength of condition effects on male traits explained more than 90% of the variation in the magnitude of sexual dimorphism, whether quantified in terms of trait size or allometric slope. The genetic mechanisms that give rise to multivariate sexual dimorphism in body shape thus function in a strongly condition-dependent manner in this species, suggesting a common genetic basis for body shape variation within and between sexes.

/pdf/the-evolution-of-condition-dependent-sexual-dimorphism-24nzgza8fn.pdf

The evolution of condition-dependent sexual dimorphism.

Publication date: 2011 Document version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Document license: CC BY Citation for published version (APA): Pape, T., Blagoderov, V., & Mostovski, M. B. (2011). Order Diptera Linnaeus, 1758. In Z. Q. Zhang (Ed.), Animal biodiversity: an outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness (pp. 222–229). Magnolia Press. Zootaxa, Vol.. 3148

Order Diptera Linnaeus, 1758. In : Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness

. The morphology of the Coelopidae is considered, particularly in relation to taxonomic characters, terminology, and sexual di morphism. Taxonomic relationships and family limits are discussed; the Coelopidae appear to be most closely related to the families Helcomyzidae and Dryomyzidae of the superfamily Sciomyzoidea. The following genera are excluded from the Coelopidae: Listriomastax and Apetaenus (Tethinidae), Orygma (Sepsidae), Heterocheila (or Oedoparea, position doubtful). The position of the genera Malacomyia, Baeopterus and Icaridion in the Coelopidae is confirmed. The Coe lopidae are divided into two subfamilies, Lopinae subfam.n. and Coe-lopinae. The Coelopinae include four tribes: Glumini trib.n., Coelopini, Coelopellini trib.n., Ammini trib.n. The following genera and species are described as new: Lopa, Gluma, Rhis, This, Amma, Lopa convexa, Gluma keyzeri, G.nitida, G.musgravei, Rhis whitleyi, This canus, Coe-lopella popeae, Amma blancheae. The subgenera Fucomyia and Neo-coelopa of the genus Coelopa are rejected as invalid. Chaetocoelopa huttoni Harrison (1959) is a new synonym of Chaetocoelopa littoralis (Hutton, 1881). Coelopa palauensis Hardy (1957) is a new synonym of C.alluaudi Seguy (1941), which is recorded from Australia for the first time. Coelopa africana Malloch (1933a) is a new synonym of C.ursina (Wiedemann, 1824) from southern Africa. Keys are provided to supra-generic groupings of Coelopidae, to the Australasian genera, and to the species of Chaetocoelopa, Coelopella, Gluma and Icaridion.



Information on the biology and ecology of Coelopidae is summarized, and additional data on Australian species are recorded. Coelopids are among the most significant organisms recycling stranded kelp, because of their often enormous biomass. Their activities can be detrimental to sea-side recreation. Parasitism by Stigmatomyces sp. (Ascomycetes: Laboulbeniales) is recorded for several coelopid species. The distribution patterns of coelopid taxa are discussed.

Review of the Australian kelp flies Diptera: Coelopidae

Agonistic behavior in achias australis (diptera, platystomatidae) and the significance of eyestalks

Description and biology of a new genus of flies related to Anthoclusia and representing a new family (Diptera, Schizophora, Neurochaetidae)

The tribe Phytalmiini is defined to include the genera Phytalmia Gerstaecker, Diplochorda Osten Sacken (=Nesadrama Perkins syn.n.) and Sessilina gen.n. (type-species Dacus nigrilinea Walker), with Ortaloptera Edwards as an outlying member; a key is provided to these genera. The tribe is nearly restricted to the Papuan Subregion; the record of Nesadrama petiolata Hardy from the Philippine Islands is questioned, and this species is synonymized with Diplochorda myrmex Osten Sacken syn.n. Nesadrama longistigma Perkins is a synonym of D.turgida (Walker) syn.n. Keys are provided to the six species of Phytalmia: alcicornis (Saunders), antilocapra sp.n., biarmata Malloch, cervicornis Gerstaecker (=prisca Enderlein syn.n.), megalotis Gerstaecker (= wallacei Saunders syn.n.), mouldsi sp.n.; also the three species of Sessilina, horrida sp.n., literata sp.n., nigrilinea (Walker). The enlarged cheek-processes may be greatly reduced in P.biarmata and cervicornis. The morphology of the internal reproduction system of mouldsi females is described.

A systematic study of Phytalmia (Diptera, Tephritidae) with description of a new genus

The classification of the family Micropezidae is re-examined and a key is given to the five subfamilies now recognised, of which Calycopteryginae is described as new and Eurybatinae is raised from tribal rank. Metopochetini is a new tribe of Eurybatinae. A key is given to the nine genera now included in the Eurybatinae, of which Papeza is described as new. P.szentivanyi is a new species from Papua. Notes on the taxonomy and distribution of genera are included. The position of Anaeropsis Bigot in the Micropezidae is confirmed. New synonymies are established as follows: Crepidochetus Enderlein (= Gongylocephala Czerny syn. n.); Metopochetus bivittatus (Macquart) (= Calobata tenuipes Walker syn. n.). New generic combinations are as follows: Metopochetus terminalis (Walker) and M.compressus (Walker) from Calobata; Crepidochetus nigrifemur (Czerny), C.pallidus (Steyskal), and Cater (Steyskal) from Gongylocephala; Crosa fragilis (Walker) from Micropeza; Crosa nigriventris (Enderlein) and C.uneifera (de Meijere) from Eurybata.

David K. McAlpine

Papers

Review of the Australian kelp flies Diptera: Coelopidae

Agonistic behavior in achias australis (diptera, platystomatidae) and the significance of eyestalks

Description and biology of a new genus of flies related to Anthoclusia and representing a new family (Diptera, Schizophora, Neurochaetidae)

A systematic study of Phytalmia (Diptera, Tephritidae) with description of a new genus

The subfamily classification of the Micropezidae and the genera of Eurybatinae (Diptera: Schizophora)